Authors/Thomas Aquinas/metaphysics/liber10/lect10

Lecture 10

Latin	English
lib. 10 l. 10 n. 1 Quia philosophus superius ostendit contrarietatem esse differentiam quamdam, differentia autem vel est secundum genus, vel secundum speciem; intendit hic Aristoteles ostendere quomodo contraria se habeant ad hoc, ut differant genere et specie. Et dividitur in partes duas. In prima ostendit quod differentia secundum speciem pertinet ad contrarietatem. In secunda ostendit quomodo de quibusdam contrariis aliter est, ibi, dubitabit autem aliquis quare femina et cetera. Circa primum tria facit. Primo ostendit quod differentia quae facit differre specie, est secundum se ipsius generis, quasi ipsam naturam generis in diversas species dividens. Secundo ostendit quod hoc convenit contrarietati, ibi, contrarietas igitur haec et cetera. Tertio concludit quoddam corollarium ex dictis, ibi, quare palam, quia ad id quod vocatur genus et cetera. Dicit ergo primo, quod in omni diversitate secundum speciem oportet duo accipere: scilicet ut hoc sit diversum ab aliquo, et ut sit aliquid diversificatum per haec duo. Et hoc quod est diversificatum per haec duo, oportet inesse ambobus. Sicut animal est quod est diversificatum in diversas species, scilicet in hominem et equum: et oportet quod ambo, scilicet homo et equus, sint animalia. Unde patet quod necesse est ea quae sunt diversa specie adinvicem, in eodem genere esse.	2112. Because the Philosopher has shown above (840:C 2107) that contrariety is a kind of difference, and difference is either generic or specific, his aim here is to show how contraries differ generically and specifically. This is divided into two parts. In the first (887:C 2112) he shows that difference in species is contrariety. In the second (891:C 2127) he shows how this does not apply in the case of some contraries (“But someone”). In regard to the first he does three things. First, he shows that the difference which causes difference in species belongs essentially to the same genus as the attribute which divided the nature itself of the genus into different species. Second (888:C 2120), he shows that this is proper to contrariety (“Therefore this will”). Third (890:C 2124), he draws a corollary from what has been said (“It is evident”). He accordingly says, first (887), that wherever there is difference in species two things must be considered, namely, that one thing differs from something else, and that there is something which is differentiated by these two. And that which is differentiated by these two must belong to both; for example, animal is something divided into various species, say, man and horse; and both of these, man and horse, must be animals. It is evident, then, that things which differ specifically from each other must belong to the same genus.
lib. 10 l. 10 n. 2 Id enim vocatur genus, quod est unum et idem ambobus, non secundum accidens de utroque praedicatum, neque secundum accidens diversificatum in utroque. Unde oportet, quod habeat differentiam non secundum accidens: sive genus ponatur ens quasi materia, sive qualitercumque aliter.	2113. For that which is one and the same for both and is not predicated of each accidentally or differentiated into each accidentally is called their genus. Hence it must have a difference which is not accidental whether the genus is assumed to have the nature of matter or is taken in some other way.
lib. 10 l. 10 n. 3 Hoc autem ideo dicit, quia aliter diversificatur materia per formas et aliter genus per differentias. Forma enim non est hoc ipsum quod est materia, sed facit compositionem cum ea. Unde materia non est ipsum compositum, sed aliquid eius. Differentia vero additur generi non quasi pars parti, sed quasi totum toti. Unde genus est hoc ipsum quod est species, et non solum aliquid eius. Si autem esset pars, non praedicaretur de ea.	2114. Now he says this because matter is differentiated in one way by form, and genus is differentiated in another way by differences; for form is not matter itself but enters into composition with it. Hence matter is not the composite itself but is something belonging to it. But a difference is added to a genus, not as part to part, but as whole to whole; so that the genus is the very thing which is the species, and is not merely something belonging to it. But if it were a part, it would not be predicated of it.
lib. 10 l. 10 n. 4 Sed tamen, quia totum potest denominari ab una sola parte sua, puta si homo denominetur habens caput, vel habens manus, contingit ipsum compositum ex materia et forma denominari. Et quidem nomen, quo aliquid totum denominatur ab eo quod est materiale in ipso, est nomen generis. Nomen autem, quo denominatur a principio formali, est nomen differentiae. Sicut homo nominatur animal a natura sensibili, rationale vero a natura intellectiva. Sicut igitur habens manum competit toti, licet manus sit pars, ita genus et differentia conveniunt toti, licet sumantur a partibus.	2115. Yet since a whole can be named from one of its own parts alone, for example, if a man is said to be headed or handed, it is possible for the composite itself to be named from its matter and form. And the name which any whole gets from its material principle is that of the genus. But the name which it gets from its formal principle is the name of the difference. For example, man is called an animal because of his sensory nature, and he is called rational because of his intellective nature. Therefore, just as “handed” belongs to the whole even though the hand is a part, in a similar way genus and difference refer to the whole even though they are derived from the parts of the thing.
lib. 10 l. 10 n. 5 Si ergo consideretur in genere et differentia id a quo utrumque sumitur, hoc modo genus se habet ad differentias, sicut materia ad formas. Si autem consideretur secundum quod nominant totum, sic aliter se habent. Hoc tamen commune est utrobique, quod sicut ipsa essentia materiae dividitur per formas, ita ipsa natura generis diversificatur per differentias. Sed hoc utrobique distat, quia materia est in utroque divisorum, non tamen est utrumque eorum; genus autem utrumque eorum est: quia materia nominat partem, genus autem totum.	2116. If in the case of genus and difference, then, one considers the principle from which each is derived, the genus is related to differences as matter is to forms. But if one considers them from the viewpoint of their designating the whole, then they are related in a different way. Yet this is common to both, namely, that just as the essence of matter is divided by forms, so too the nature of a genus is divided by differences. But both differ in this respect, that, while matter is contained in both of the things divided, it is not both of them. However, the genus is both of them; because matter designates a part, but the genus designates the whole.
lib. 10 l. 10 n. 6 Et ideo exponens quod dixerat, genus esse quo ambo specie differentia dicuntur unum et idem, subiungit quod non solum oportet genus esse commune duobus differentibus secundum speciem, sicut quod utrumque sit animal, sicut aliquid indivisum est commune diversis, ut eadem domus aut possessio; sed oportet hoc ipsum quod est animal esse alterum utrumque; ita quod hoc animal sit equus et hoc animal sit homo.	2117. Therefore in explaining his statement that a genus is that by which both of the things which differ specifically are said to be one and the same, he adds that, not only must the genus be common to both of the things which differ specifically (as, for instance, both are animals) as something which is undivided is common to different things, just as a house and a possession are the same, but the animal in both must differ, so that this animal is a horse and that animal is a man.
lib. 10 l. 10 n. 7 Et hoc dicit contra Platonicos, qui ponebant communia separata, quasi ipsamet natura communis non diversificaretur, si natura speciei esset aliquid aliud praeter naturam generis. Unde contra hoc concludit ex dictis, quod hoc ipsum quod est commune, diversificatur secundum speciem. Unde oportet quod commune, ut animal, ipsum secundum se sit hoc tale secundum unam differentiam, et illud tale secundum aliam differentiam, sicut quod hoc sit equus, et illud homo. Et ita sequitur, quod si animal sit secundum se hoc tale et hoc tale, quod differentia faciens differre specie, sit quaedam diversitas generis. Et exponit diversitatem generis, quae ipsam naturam generis diversificat.	2118. He says this against the Platonists, who claimed that there are common separate natures in the sense that the common nature would not be diversified if the nature of the species were something else besides the nature of the genus. Hence from what has been said he concludes against this position that whatever is common is differentiated specifically. lience the common nature in.itself, for example, animal, must be this sort of animal with one difference, and that sort of animal with another difference, so that the one is a horse and the other is a man. Thus if animal in itself is this and that sort of animal, it follows that the difference which causes difference in species is a certain difference of the genus. And he explains the diversification of a genus which makes a difference in the generic nature itself.
lib. 10 l. 10 n. 8 Per hoc autem quod hic philosophus dicit, non solum excluditur opinio Platonis ponentis commune unum et idem per se existere: sed etiam excluditur opinio eorum qui dicunt, quod illud quod pertinet ad naturam generis, non differt specie in speciebus diversis; sicut quod anima sensibilis non differt specie in homine et equo.	2119. Now what the Philosopher says here rules out not only the opinion of Plato, who claimed that one and the same common nature exists of itself, but also the opinion of those who say that whatever pertains to the nature of the genus does not differ specifically in different species, for example, the opinion that the sensory soul of a man does not differ specifically from that in a horse.
lib. 10 l. 10 n. 9 Deinde cum dicit contrarietas igitur ostendit quod differentia diversificans secundum se genus modo praedicto, est contrarietas; dicens: cum differentia secundum speciem sit secundum se diversificans genus, manifestum est quod haec differentia est contrarietas. Et hoc primo manifestat ex inductione. Videmus enim quod omnia genera dividuntur per opposita. Quod quidem necesse est. Nam ea quae non sunt opposita, possunt simul existere in eodem. Quae autem huiusmodi sunt, non possunt esse diversa, cum non ex necessitate sint in diversis. Unde oportet quod solum oppositis aliquid commune dividatur.	2120. Therefore this will (888). Then he shows that the difference which divides the genus essentially in the foregoing way is contrariety. He says that, since the specific difference divides the genus essentially, it is evident that this difference is contrariety. He makes this clear, first, by an induction; for we see that all genera are divided by opposites. And this must be so; for those things which are not opposites can coexist in the same subject; and things of this kind cannot be different, since they are not necessarily in different things. Hence anything common must be divided by opposites alone.
lib. 10 l. 10 n. 10 Non autem divisio generis in diversas species potest fieri per alia opposita. Nam contradictorie opposita non sunt in eodem genere, cum negatio nihil ponat. Et simile est de privative oppositis, cum privatio non sit nisi negatio in subiecto aliquo. Relativa etiam, ut supra habitum est, non sunt eiusdem generis, nisi quae secundum se adinvicem referuntur, quae quodammodo sunt contraria, ut supra dictum est. Et sic relinquitur quod sola contraria faciunt differre specie, ea quae sunt unius generis.	2121. But the division of a genus into different species cannot come about by way of the other kinds of opposites. For things which are opposed as contradictories do not belong to the same genus, since negation posits nothing. The same is true of privative opposites, for privation is nothing else than negation in a subject. And relative terms, as has been explained above (881:C 2103), belong to the same genus only if they are in themselves relative to each other and are in a sense contraries, as has been stated above (ibid.). It is evident, then, that only contraries cause things belonging to the same genus to differ specifically.
lib. 10 l. 10 n. 11 Deinde cum dicit et quod manifestat idem per rationem; dicens, quod contraria sunt in eodem genere, sicut ostensum est. Dictum est enim quod contrarietas est differentia perfecta. Et iterum dictum est quod differentia secundum speciem est aliquid alicuius, idest ab aliquo. Et quod praeter hoc, idem genus oportet esse in ambobus differentibus specie. Et ex his duobus sequitur, quod omnia contraria sint in eadem coelementatione categoriae, idest in eadem ordinatione praedicamentali. Ut hoc tamen intelligatur de contrariis, quaecumque sunt differentia specie, et non genere. Quod quidem dicit praeservando se a corruptibili et incorruptibili, de quibus post dicetur quod sunt diversa genere.	2122. And it has (889). Then he proves the same point by an argument. He says that contraries belong to the same genus, as has been shown (883:C 2105). For it has been pointed out (844:C 2027-29) that contrariety is the perfect difference; and it has also been stated (889) that difference in species is “something of something,” i.e., from something. And besides this it has been noted (887:C 2112) that the same genus must belong to both of the things which differ specifically. Now from these two considerations it follows that all contraries are contained in the same “order of the categories,” i.e., in the same classification of predicates, yet in such a way that this is understood of all contraries which differ specifically but not generically. He says this in order to preclude the corruptible and the incorruptible, which are later said to differ generically.
lib. 10 l. 10 n. 12 Et non solum contraria sunt in uno genere, sed sunt etiam diversa abinvicem. Quod patet: quia ea quae perfecte differunt, sicut contraria, non sunt invicem simul. Unde, cum ad differentiam secundum speciem requiratur identitas generis, et diversificatio generis per diversas species, et cum utrumque in contrarietate reperiatur, sequitur quod differentia secundum speciem sit contrarietas. Quod manifestum est; quia hoc est aliqua esse diversa secundum speciem existentia in eodem genere, habere contrarietatem differentiarum, cum sint individua, idest non ulterius divisa in species, sicut sunt species specialissimae. Quae quidem dicuntur individua, inquantum ulterius non dividuntur formaliter. Particularia vero dicuntur individua, inquantum nec materialiter nec formaliter ulterius dividuntur. Et sicut diversa specie sunt quae contrarietatem habent, ita eadem specie sunt, quae non habent contrarietatem, cum sint individua secundum formalem differentiam. Contrarietates enim fiunt in divisione, non solum in supremis generibus, sed etiam in mediis, prius quam veniatur ad individua, idest ad ultimas species. Sic igitur manifestum est, quod licet non in omni genere sit contrarietas specierum, in omni tamen genere est contrarietas differentiarum.	2123. And contraries not only belong to one genus but they also differ from each other. This is evident, for things which differ perfectly as contraries are not generated from each other at the same time. Therefore, since difference in species requires identity of genus and the division of the genus into different species, and since both of these are found in contrariety, it follows that difference in species is contrariety. This is evident because in order for things in the same genus to differ specifically they must have contrariety of differences “while being undivided,” i.e., when they are not further divided into species, as the lowest species. And these are said to be undivided inasmuch as they are not further divided formally. But particular things are said to be undivided inasmuch as they are not further divided either formally or materially. And just as those things are specifically different which have contrariety, so too those things are specifically the same which do not have contrariety, since they are not divided by any formal difference. For contrarieties arise in the process of division not only in the highest genera but also in the intermediate ones, “before one reaches the things which are undivided,” i.e., the lowest species. It is accordingly evident that, even though there is not contrariety of species in every genus, there is contrariety of differences in every genus.
lib. 10 l. 10 n. 13 Deinde cum dicit quare palam concludit quoddam corollarium ex dictis; scilicet quod nihil eorum quae conveniunt in genere, sicut sunt species generis, dicitur idem specie, nec diversum specie ad genus; quia id ad quod aliquid dicitur specie idem, habet unam et eamdem differentiam; illud autem ad quod aliquid dicitur diversum specie, habet oppositam differentiam. Si igitur aliqua specierum diceretur idem specie vel diversum ad genus, sequeretur quod genus haberet in sui ratione aliquam differentiam. Sed hoc falsum est.	2124. It is evident (890). Here he draws a corollary from what has been said, namely, that none of the things which agree in being species of the same genus are said to be either specifically the same as the genus or specifically different from it; for things which are said to be specifically the same have one and the same difference, whereas things which are said to be specifically different have opposite differences. Hence, if any species is said to be specifically the same as the genus or specifically different from it, it follows that the genus will contain some difference in its definition. But this is false.
lib. 10 l. 10 n. 14 Quod sic patet. Materia enim ostenditur negatione, idest natura materiae intelligitur per negationem omnium formarum. Genus autem est quodammodo materia, sicut expositum est. Et loquimur nunc de genere quod invenitur in naturis rerum, non de genere quod in hominibus dicitur, sicut genus Romanorum vel Heraclidarum. Unde patet quod etiam genus in sua ratione non habet differentiam aliquam.	2125. This is made evident as follows: matter “is made known by negation, i.e., the nature of matter is understood by negating all forms. And in a sense genus is matter, as has been explained (887:C 2113-15); and we are now speaking of genus in the sense that it is found in the natures of things, and not in the sense that it applies to men, as the genus (or race) of the Romans or of the Heraclidae. Hence it is clear that a genus does not have a difference in its definition.
lib. 10 l. 10 n. 15 Et sic patet, quod nulla species a suo genere differt specie, nec est cum eo idem specie: et similiter non differunt aliqua specie ab illis quae non sunt in eodem genere, proprie loquendo, sed differunt genere ab eis. Specie vero differunt ab his quae sunt in eodem genere: quia contrarietas est differentia qua aliqua differunt specie, ut ostensum est: non quia ipsa contrarietas differentiarum differat specie, licet contraria differant specie; sed contrarietas est solum in his quae sunt eiusdem generis. Unde relinquitur quod differre specie non sit proprie in his quae sunt alterius generis.	2126. Thus it is evident that no species is specifically different from its genus, nor is it specifically the same as its genus. And similarly things that do not belong to the same genus do not differ specifically from each other, properly speaking, but they do differ generically. And things that differ specifically differ from those that belong to the same genus; for a contrariety is the difference by which things differ specifically, as has been explained (888:C 2120)—not that the contrariety itself of the differences need differ specifically, even though contraries differ specifically; but contrariety is found only in those things that belong to the same genus. It follows, then, that to differ specifically does not properly pertain to things that belong to different genera.