Authors/Thomas Aquinas/perihermenias/perihermenias II/L4

LECTURE 4

Latin	English
Cajetanus lib. 2 l. 4 n. 1 Postquam determinatum est de diversitate enunciationum, hic intendit removere quaedam dubia circa praedicta. Et circa hoc facit sex secundum numerum dubiorum, quae suis patebunt locis. Quia ergo supra dixerat quod in universalibus non similiter contingit angulares esse simul veras, quia affirmativae angulares non possunt esse simul verae, negativae autem sic; poterat quispiam dubitare, quae est causa huius diversitatis. Ideo nunc illius dicti causam intendit assignare talem, quia, scilicet, angulares affirmativae sunt contrariae inter se; contrarias autem in nulla materia contingit esse simul veras. Angulares autem negativae sunt subcontrariae illis oppositae; subcontrarias autem contingit esse simul veras. Et circa haec duo facit: primo, declarat conditiones contrariarum et subcontrariarum; secundo, quod angulares affirmativae sint contrariae et quod angulares negativae sint subcontrariae; ibi: sequuntur vero et cetera. Dicit ergo resumendo: quoniam in primo dictum est quod enunciatio negativa contraria illi affirmativae universali, scilicet, omne animal est iustum, est ista, nullum animal est iustum; manifestum est quod istae non possunt simul, idest in eodem tempore, neque in eodem ipso, idest de eodem subiecto esse verae. His vero oppositae, idest subcontrariae inter se, possunt esse simul verae aliquando, scilicet in materia contingenti, ut, quoddam animal est iustum, non omne animal est iustum.	1. Having treated the diversity of enunciations Aristotle now answers certain questions about them. He takes up six points related to the number of difficulties. These will become evident as we come to them. Since he has said that in universal enunciations the diagonals in one case cannot be at once true but can be in another, for the diagonal affirmatives cannot be at once true but the negatives can,” someone might raise a question as to the cause of this diversity. Therefore, it is his intention now to assign the cause of this: namely, that the diagonal affirmatives are contrary to each other, and contraries cannot be at once true in any matter; but the diagonal negatives are subcontraries opposed to these and can be at once true. In relation to this he first states the conditions for contraries and subcontraries. Then he shows that diagonal affirmatives are contraries and that diagonal negatives are subcontraries where he says, Now the enunciation "No man is just” follows upon the enunciation "Every man is nonjust,” etc. By way of resumé, therefore, he says that in the first book it was said that the negative enunciation contrary to the universal affirmative "Every animal is just” is "No animal is just.” It is evident that these cannot be at once true, i.e., at the same time, nor of the same thing, i.e., of the same subject. But the opposites of these, i.e., the subcontraries, can sometimes be at once true, i.e., in contingent matter, as in "Some animal is just” and "Not every animal is just.”
Cajetanus lib. 2 l. 4 n. 2 Deinde cum dicit: sequuntur vero etc., declarat quod angulares affirmativae supra positae sint contrariae, negativae vero subcontrariae. Et primum quidem ex eo quod universalis affirmativa infinita et universalis negativa simplex aequipollent; et consequenter utraque earum est contraria universali affirmativae simplici, quae est altera angularis. Unde dicit quod hanc universalem negativam finitam, nullus homo est iustus, sequitur aequipollenter illa universalis affirmativa infinita, omnis homo est non iustus. Secundum vero declarat ex eo quod particularis affirmativa finita et particularis negativa infinita aequipollent. Et consequenter utraque earum est subcontraria particulari negativae simplici, quae est altera angularis, ut in figura supra posita inspicere potes. Unde subdit quod illam particularem affirmativam finitam, aliquis homo est iustus, opposita sequitur aequipollenter (opposita intellige non istius particularis, sed illius universalis affirmativae infinitae), non omnis homo est non iustus. Haec enim est contradictoria eius. Ut autem clare videatur quomodo supra dictae enunciationes sint aequipollentes, formetur figura quadrata, in cuius uno angulo ponatur universalis negativa finita, et sub ea contradictoria particularis affirmativa finita; ex alia vero parte locetur universalis affirmativa infinita, et sub ea contradictoria particularis negativa infinita, noteturque contradictio inter angulares et collaterales inter se, hoc modo: (Figura). His siquidem sic dispositis, patet primo ipsarum universalium mutua consequentia in veritate et falsitate, quia si altera earum est vera, sua angularis contradictoria est falsa; et si ista est falsa, sua collateralis contradictoria, quae est altera universalis, erit vera, et similiter procedit quoad falsitatem particularium. Deinde eodem modo manifestatur mutua sequela. Si enim altera earum est vera, sua angularis contradictoria est falsa, ista autem existente falsa, sua contradictoria collateralis, quae est altera particularis erit vera; simili quoque modo procedendum est quoad falsitatem.	2. When he says, Now the enunciation, "No man is just” follows upon the enunciation "Every man is nonjust,” etc., he shows that the diagonal affirmatives previously posited are contraries, the negatives subcontraries. First he manifests this from the fact that the infinite universal affirmative and the simple universal negative are equal in meaning, and consequently each of them is contrary to the simple universal affirmative, which is the other diagonal. Hence, he says that the infinite universal affirmative "Every man is non-just” follows upon the finite universal negative "No man is just,” equivalently. Secondly he shows this from the fact that the finite particular affirmative and the infinite particular negative are equal in meaning, and consequently each of these is subcontrary to the simple particular negative, which is the other diagonal. This you can see in the previous diagram. He says, then, that the opposite "Not every man is non-just” follows upon the finite particular "Some man is just” equivalently (understand "the opposite” not of this particular but of the infinite universal affirmative, for this is its contradictory). In order to see clearly how these enunciations are equivalent, make a four-sided figure, putting the finite universal negative in one corner and under it the contradictory, the finite particular affirmative. On the other side, put the infinite universal affirmative and under it the contradictory, the infinite particular negative. Now indicate the contradiction between diagonals and the contradiction between collaterals. No man is just equivalents Every man is non-just contradictories contradictories Some man is just equivalents Not every man is non-just This arrangement makes the mutual consequence of the universals in truth and falsity evident, for if one of them is true, its diagonal contradictory is false; and if this is false, its collateral contradictory, which is the other universal, will be true. With respect to the falsity of the particulars the procedure is the same. Their mutual consequence is made evident in the same way, for if one of them is true, its diagonal contradictory is false, and if this is false, its contradictory collateral, which is the other particular, will be true; the procedure is the same with respect to falsity.
Cajetanus lib. 2 l. 4 n. 3 Sed est hic unum dubium. In I enim priorum, in fine, Aristoteles ex proposito determinat non esse idem iudicium de universali negativa et universali affirmativa infinita; et superius in hoc secundo, super illo verbo: quarum duae se habent secundum consequentiam, duae vero minime, Ammonius, Porphyrius, Boethius et sanctus Thomas dixerunt quod negativa simplex sequitur affirmativam infinitam, sed non e converso. Ad hoc dicendum est, secundum Albertum, quod negativam finitam sequitur affirmativa infinita subiecto constante; negativa vero simplex sequitur affirmativam absolute. Unde utrumque dictum verificatur, et quod inter eas est mutua consequentia cum subiecti constantia, et quod inter eas non est mutua consequentia absolute. Potest dici secundo, quod supra locuti sumus de infinita enunciatione quoad suum totalem significatum ad formam praedicati reductum; et secundum hoc, quia negativa finita est superior affirmativa infinita, ideo non erat mutua consequentia: hic autem loquimur de ipsa infinita formaliter sumpta. Unde s. Thomas tunc adducendo Ammonii expositionem dixit, secundum hunc modum loquendi: negativa simplex, in plus est quam affirmativa infinita. Textus vero I priorum ultra praedicta loquitur de finita et infinita in ordine ad syllogismum. Manifestum est autem quod universalis affirmativa sive finita sive infinita non concluditur nisi in primo primae. Universalis autem negativa quaecumque concluditur et in secundo primae, et primo et secundo secundae.	3. However, a question arises with respect to this. At the end of I Priorum [46: 51b 5], Aristotle determines from what he has proposed that the judgment of the universal negative and the infinite universal affirmative is not the same. Furthermore, in the second book of the present work, in relation to the phrase Of which two are related according to consequence, two are not. Ammonius, Porphyry, Boethius, and St. Thomas say that the simple negative follows upon the infinite affirmative and not conversely.” Albert answers this latter difficulty by pointing out that the infinite affirmative follows upon the finite negative when the subject is constant, but the simple negative follows upon the affirmative absolutely. Hence both positions are verified, for with a constant subject there is a mutual consequence between them, but there is not a mutual consequence between them absolutely. We could also answer this difficulty in this way. In Book II, Lesson 2 we were speaking of the infinite enunciation with the whole of what it signified reduced to the form of the predicate, and according to this there was not a mutual consequence, since the finite negative is superior to the infinite affirmative. But here we are speaking of the infinite itself formally taken. Hence St. Thomas, when he introduced the exposition of Ammonius in his commentary on the above passage, said that according to this mode of speaking the simple negative is wider than the infinite affirmative. In the above mentioned text in I Priorum [46: 52a 36], Aristotle is speaking of finite and infinite enunciations in relation to the syllogism. It is evident, however, that the universal affirmative, whether finite or infinite is only inferred in the first mode of the first figure, while any universal negative whatever is inferred in the second mode of the first figure and in the first and second modes of the second figure.
Cajetanus lib. 2 l. 4 n. 4 Deinde cum dicit: manifestum est autem etc., movet secundum dubium de vario situ negationis, an scilicet quoad veritatem et falsitatem differat praeponere et postponere negationem. Oritur autem haec dubitatio, quia dictum est nunc quod non refert quoad veritatem si dicatur, omnis homo est non iustus, aut si dicatur, omnis homo non est iustus; et tamen in altera postponitur negatio, in altera praeponitur, licet multum referat quoad affirmationem et negationem. Hanc, inquam, dubitationem solvere intendens cum distinctione, respondet quod in singularibus enunciationibus eiusdem veritatis sunt singularis negatio et infinita affirmatio eiusdem, in universalibus autem non est sic. Si enim est vera negatio ipsius universalis non oportet quod sit vera infinita affirmatio universalis. Negatio enim universalis est particularis contradictoria, qua existente vera, non est necesse suam subalternam, quae est contraria suae contradictoriae esse veram. Possunt enim duae contrariae esse simul falsae. Unde dicit quod in singularibus enunciationibus manifestum est quod, si est verum negare interrogatum, idest, si est vera negatio enunciationis singularis, de qua facta est interrogatio, verum etiam est affirmare, idest, vera erit affirmatio infinita eiusdem singularis. Verbi gratia: putasne Socrates est sapiens? Si vera est ista responsio, non; Socrates igitur non sapiens est, idest, vera erit ista affirmatio infinita, Socrates est non sapiens. In universalibus vero non est vera, quae similiter dicitur, idest, ex veritate negationis universalis affirmativae interrogatae non sequitur vera universalis affirmativa infinita, quae similis est quoad quantitatem et qualitatem enunciationi quaesitae; vera autem est eius negatio, idest, sed ex veritate responsionis negativae sequitur veram esse eius, scilicet universalis quaesitae negationem, idest, particularem negativam. Verbi gratia: putasne omnis homo est sapiens? Si vera est ista responsio, non; affirmativa similis interrogatae quam quis ex hac responsione inferre intentaret est illa: igitur omnis homo est non sapiens. Haec autem non sequitur ex illa negatione. Falsum est enim hoc, scilicet quod sequitur ex illa responsione; sed inferendum est, igitur non omnis homo sapiens est. Et ratio utriusque est, quia haec particularis ultimo illata est opposita, idest contradictoria illi universali interrogatae quam respondens falsificavit; et ideo oportet quod sit vera. Contradictoriarum enim si una est falsa, reliqua est vera. Illa vero, scilicet universalis affirmativa infinita primo illata, est contraria illi eidem universali interrogatae. Non est autem opus quod si universalium altera sit falsa, quod reliqua sit vera. In promptu est autem causa huius diversitatis inter singulares et universales. In singularibus enim varius negationis situs non variat quantitatem enunciationis; in universalibus autem variat, ut patet. Ideo fit ut non sit eadem veritas negantium universalem in quarum altera praeponitur, in altera autem postponitur negatio, ut de se patet.	4. When he says, And it is also clear with respect to the singular that if a question is asked and a negative answer is the true one, there is also a true affirmation, etc., he presents a difficulty relating to the varying position of the negation, i.e., whether there is a difference as to truth and falsity when the negation is a part of the predicate or a part of the verb. This difficulty arises from what he has just said, namely, that it is of no consequence as to truth or falsity whether you say, "Every man is non-just” or "Every man is not just”; yet in one case the negation is a part of the predicate, in the other part of the copula, and this makes a great deal of difference with respect to affirmation and negation. To solve this problem Aristotle makes a distinction: in singular enunciations, the singular negation and infinite affirmation of the same subject are of the same truth, but in universals this is not so. For if the negation of the universal is true it is not necessary that the infinite affirmation of the universal is true. The negation of the universal is the contradictory particular, but if it is true [i.e., the contradictory particular] it is not necessary that the subaltern, which is the contrary of the contradictory, be true, for two contraries can be at once false. Hence he says that in singular enunciations it is evident that if it is true to deny the thing asked, i.e., if the negation of a singular enunciation, which has been made into an interrogation, is true, there will also be a true affirmation, i.e., the infinite affirmation of the same singular will be true. For example, if the question "Do you think Socrates is wise?” has "No” as a true response, then "Socrates is non-wise,” i.e., the infinite affirmation "Socrates is non-wise” will be true. But in the case of universals the affirmative inference is not true, i.e., from the truth of a negation to a universal affirmative question, the truth of the infinite universal affirmative (which is similar in quantity and quality to the enunciation asked) does not follow. But the negation is true, i.e., from the truth of the negative response it follows that its negation is true, i.e., the negation of the universal asked, which is the particular negative. Consider, for example, the question "Do you think every man is wise?” If the response "No” is true, one would be tempted to infer the affirmative similar to the question asked, i.e., then "Every man is non-wise.” This, however, does not follow from the negation, for this is false as it follows from that response. Rather, what must be inferred is "Then not every man is wise.” And the reason for both is that the particular enunciation inferred last is the opposite, i.e., the contradictory of the universal question, which, being falsified by the negative response, makes the contradictory of the universal affirmative true, for of contradictories, if one is false the other is true. The infinite universal affirmative first inferred, however, is contrary to the same universal question. Should it not also be true? No, because it is not necessary in the case of universals that if one is false the other is true. The cause of the diversity between singulars and universals is now clear. In singulars the varying position of the negation does not vary the quantity of the enunciation ‘ but in universals it does. Therefore there is not the same truth in enunciations denying a universal when in one the negation is a part of the predicate and in the other a part of the verb.
Cajetanus lib. 2 l. 4 n. 5 Deinde cum dicit: illae vero secundum infinita etc., solvit tertiam dubitationem, an infinita nomina vel verba sint negationes. Insurgit autem hoc dubium, quia dictum est quod aequipollent negativa et infinita. Et rursus dictum est nunc quod non refert in singularibus praeponere et postponere negationem: si enim infinitum nomen est negatio, tunc enunciatio, habens subiectum infinitum vel praedicatum, erit negativa et non affirmativa. Hanc dubitationem solvit per interpretationem, probando quod nec nomina nec verba infinita sint negationes, licet videantur. Unde duo circa hoc facit: primo, proponit solutionem dicens: illae vero, scilicet dictiones, contraiacentes: verbi gratia: non homo, et, homo non iustus et iustus. Vel sic: illae vero, scilicet dictiones, secundum infinita, idest secundum infinitorum naturam, iacentes contra nomina et verba (utpote quae removentes quidem nomina et verba significant, ut non homo et non iustus et non currit, quae opponuntur contra ly homo ly iustus et ly currit), illae, inquam, dictiones infinitae videbuntur prima facie esse quasi negationes sine nomine et verbo ex eo quod comparatae nominibus et verbis contra quae iacent, ea removent, sed non sunt secundum veritatem. Dixit sine nomine et verbo quia nomen infinitum, nominis natura caret, et verbum infinitum verbi natura non possidet. Dixit quasi, quia nec nomen infinitum a nominis ratione, nec verbum infinitum a verbi proprietate omnino semota sunt. Unde, si negationes apparent, videbuntur sine nomine et verbo non omnino sed quasi. Deinde probat distinctiones infinitas non esse negationes tali ratione. Semper est necesse negationem esse veram vel falsam, quia negatio est enunciatio alicuius ab aliquo; nomen autem infinitum non dicit verum vel falsum; igitur dictio infinita non est negatio. Minorem declarat, quia qui dixit, non homo, nihil magis de homine dixit quam qui dixit, homo. Et quoad significatum quidem clarissimum est: non homo, namque, nihil addit supra hominem, imo removet hominem. Quoad veritatis vero vel falsitatis conceptum, nihil magis profuit qui dixit, non homo, quam qui dixit, homo, si aliquid aliud non addatur, imo minus verus vel falsus fuit, idest magis remotus a veritate et falsitate, qui dixit, non homo, quam qui dixit, homo: quia tam veritas quam falsitas in compositione consistit; compositioni autem vicinior est dictio finita, quae aliquid ponit, quam dictio infinita, quae nec ponit, nec componit, idest nec positionem nec compositionem importat.	5. Then he says, The antitheses in infinite names and verbs, as in " non-man” and "nonjust,” might seem to be negations without a name or a verb, etc. Here he raises the third difficulty, i.e., whether infinite names or verbs are negations. This question arises from his having said that the negative and infinite are equivalent and from having just said that in singular enunciations it makes no difference whether the negative is a part of the predicate or a part of the verb. For if the infinite name is a negation, then the enunciation having an infinite subject or predicate will be negative and not affirmative. He resolves this question by an interpretation which proves that neither infinite names nor verbs are negations although they seem to be. First he proposes the solution saying, The antitheses in infinite names and verbs, i.e., words contraposed, e.g., "non-man,” and "non-just man” and "just man”; or this may be read as, Those (namely, words) corresponding to infinites, i.e., corresponding to the nature of infinites, placed in opposition to names or verbs (namely, removing what the names and verbs signify, as in "non-man,” "non-just,” and "non-runs,” which are opposed to "man,” "just” and "runs”), would seem at first sight to be quasi-negations without Dame and verb, because, as related to the names and verbs before which they are placed, they remove them; they are not truly negations however. He says without a name or a verb because the infinite name lacks the nature of a name and the infinite verb does not have the nature of a verb. He says quasi because the infinite name does not fall short of the notion of the name in every way, nor the infinite verb of the nature of the verb. Hence, if it is thought that they are negations, they will be regarded as without a name or a verb, not in every way but as though they were without a name or a verb. He proves that infinitizing signs of separation are not negations by pointing out that it is always necessary for the negation to be true or false since a negation is an enunciation of something separated from something. The infinite name, however, does not assert what is true or false. Therefore the infinite word is not a negation. He manifests the minor when he says that the one who says "non-man” says nothing more of man than the one who says "man.” Clearly this is so with respect to what is signified, for "non-man” adds nothing beyond "man”; rather, it removes "man.” Moreover, with respect to a conception of truth or falsity, it is of no more use to say "non-man” than to say "man” if something else is not added; rather, it is less true or false, i.e., one who says non-man is more removed from truth and falsity than one who says man,” for both truth and falsity depend on composition, and the finite word which posits something is closer to composition than the infinite word, which neither posits nor composes, i.e., it implies neither positing nor composition.
Cajetanus lib. 2 l. 4 n. 6 Deinde cum dicit: significat autem etc., respondet quartae dubitationi, quomodo scilicet intelligatur illud verbum supradictum de enunciationibus habentibus subiectum infinitum: hae autem extra illas, ipsae secundum se erunt. Et ait quod intelligitur quantum ad significati consequentiam, et non solum quantum ad ipsas enunciationes formaliter. Unde duas habentes subiectum infinitum, universalem scilicet affirmativam et universalem negativam adducens, ait quod neutra earum significat idem alicui illarum, scilicet habentium subiectum finitum. Haec enim universalis affirmativa, omnis non homo est iustus, nulli habenti subiectum finitum significat idem: non enim significat idem quod ista, omnis homo est iustus; neque quod ista, omnis homo est non iustus. Similiter opposita negatio et universalis negativa habens subiectum infinitum, quae est contrarie opposita supradictae, scilicet omnis non homo non est iustus, nulli illarum de subiecto finito significat idem. Et hoc clarum est ex diversitate subiecti in istis et in illis.	6. When he says, Moreover, "Every non-man is just does not signify the same thing as any of the other enunciations, etc., he answers a fourth difficulty, i.e., how the earlier statement concerning enunciations having an infinite subject is to be understood. The statement was that these stand by themselves and are distinct from the former [in consequence of using the name "non-man”]. This is to be understood not just with respect to the enunciations themselves formally, but with respect to the consequence of what is signified. Hence, giving two examples of enunciations with an infinite subject, the universal affirmative and universal negative,” he says that neither of these signifies the same thing as any of those, namely of those having a finite subject. The universal affirmative "Every non-man is just” does not signify the same thing as any of the enunciations with a finite subject; for it does not signify "Every man is just” nor "Every man is non-just.” Nor do the opposite negation, or the universal negative having an infinite subject which is contrarily opposed to the universal affirmative, signify the same thing as enunciations with a finite subject; i.e., "Not every non-man is just” and "No non-man is just,” do not signify the same thing as any of those with a finite subject. This is evident from the diversity of subject in the latter and the former.
Cajetanus lib. 2 l. 4 n. 7 Deinde cum dicit: illa vero quae est etc., respondet quintae quaestioni, an scilicet inter enunciationes de subiecto infinito sit aliqua consequentia. Oritur autem dubitatio haec ex eo, quod superius est inter eas ad invicem assignata consequentia. Ait ergo quod etiam inter istas est consequentia. Nam universalis affirmativa de subiecto, et praedicato infinitis et universalis negativa de subiecto infinito, praedicato vero finito, aequipollent. Ista namque, omnis non homo est non iustus, idem significat illi, nullus non homo est iustus. Idem autem est iudicium de particularibus indefinitis et singularibus similibus supradictis. Cuiuscunque enim quantitatis sint, semper affirmativa de utroque extremo infinita et negativa subiecti quidem infiniti, praedicati autem finiti, aequipollent, ut facile potes exemplis videre. Unde Aristoteles universales exprimens, caeteras ex illis intelligi voluit.	7. When he says, But "Every non-man is non-just” signifies the same thing as "No non-man is just,” he answers a fifth difficulty, i.e., is there a consequence among enunciations with an infinite subject? This question arises from the fact that consequences were assigned among them earlier.” He says, therefore, that there is a consequence even among these, for the universal affirmative with an infinite subject and predicate and the universal negative with an infinite subject but a finite predicate are equivalent, i.e., "Every non-man is non-just” signifies the same thing as "No non-man is just.” This is also the case in particular infinites and singulars which are similar to the foresaid, for no matter what their quantity, the affirmative with both extremes infinite and the negative with an infinite subject and a finite predicate are always equivalent, as may be easily seen by examples. Hence, Aristotle in giving the universals intends the others to be understood from these.
Cajetanus lib. 2 l. 4 n. 8 Deinde cum dicit: transposita vero nomina etc., solvit sextam dubitationem, an propter nominum vel verborum transpositionem varietur enunciationis significatio. Oritur autem haec quaestio ex eo, quod docuit transpositionem negationis variare enunciationis significationem. Aliud enim dixit significare, omnis homo non est iustus, et aliud, non omnis homo est iustus. Ex hoc, inquam, dubitatur, an similiter contingat circa nominum transpositionem, quod ipsa transposita enunciationem varient, sicut negatio transposita. Et circa hoc duo facit: primo, ponit solutionem dicens, quod transposita nomina et verba idem significant: verbi gratia, idem significat, est albus homo, et, est homo albus, ubi est transpositio nominum. Similiter transposita verba idem significant, ut, est albus homo, et, homo albus est.	8. When he says, When the names and verbs are transposed, the enunciations signify the same thing, etc., he resolves a sixth difficulty: whether the signification of the enunciation is varied because of the transposition of names or verbs. This question arises from his having shown that the transposition of the negation varies the signification of the enunciation. "Every man is non-just,” he said, does not signify the same thing as "Not every man is just.” This raises the question as to whether a similar thing happens when we transpose names. Would this vary the enunciation as the transposed negation does? First he states the solution, saying that transposed names and verbs signify the same thing, e.g., "Man is white” signifies the same thing as "White is man.” Transposed verbs also signify the same thing, as in "Man is white” and "Man white is.”
Cajetanus lib. 2 l. 4 n. 9 Deinde cum dicit: nam si hoc non est etc., probat praedictam solutionem ex numero negationum contradictoriarum ducendo ad impossibile, tali ratione. Si hoc non est, idest si nomina transposita diversificant enunciationem, eiusdem affirmationis erunt duae negationes; sed ostensum est in I libro, quod una tantum est negatio unius affirmationis; ergo a destructione consequentis ad destructionem antecedentis transposita nomina non variant enunciationem. Ad probationis autem consequentiae claritatem formetur figura, ubi ex uno latere locentur ambae suprapositae affirmationes, transpositis nominibus; et ex altero contraponantur duae negativae, similes illis quoad terminos et eorum positiones. Deinde, aliquantulo interiecto spatio, sub affirmativis ponatur affirmatio infiniti subiecti, et sub negativis illius negatio. Et notetur contradictio inter primam affirmationem et duas negationes primas, et inter secundam affirmationem et omnes tres negationes, ita tamen quod inter ipsam et infimam negationem notetur contradictio non vera, sed imaginaria. Notetur quoque contradictio inter tertiam affirmationem et tertiam negationem inter se. Hoc modo: (Figura). His ita dispositis, probat consequentiam Aristoteles sic. Illius affirmationis, est albus homo, negatio est, non est albus homo; illius autem secundae affirmationis, quae est, est homo albus, si ista affirmatio non est eadem illi supradictae affirmationi, scilicet, est albus homo, propter nominum transpositionem, negatio erit altera istarum, scilicet aut, non est non homo albus, aut, non est homo albus. Sed utraque habet affirmationem oppositam alia ab illa assignatam, scilicet, est homo albus. Nam altera quidem dictarum negationum, scilicet, non est non homo albus, negatio est illius quae dicit, est non homo albus; alia vero, scilicet, non est homo albus, negatio est eius affirmationis, quae dicit, est albus homo, quae fuit prima affirmatio. Ergo quaecunque dictarum negationum afferatur contradictoria illi mediae, sequitur quod sint duae unius, idest quod unius negationis sint duae affirmationes, et quod unius affirmationis sint duae negationes: quod est impossibile. Et hoc, ut dictum est, sequitur stante hypothesi erronea, quod illae affirmationes sint propter nominum transpositionem diversae.	9. Then he proves the solution from the number of contradictory negations when he says, For if this is not the case there will be more than one negation of the same enunciation, etc. He does this by a reduction to the impossible and his reasoning is as follows. If this is not so, i.e., if transposed names diversify enunciations, there will be two negations of the same affirmation. But in the first book it was shown that there is only one negation of one affirmation. Going, then, from the destruction of the consequent to the destruction of the antecedent, transposed names do not vary the enunciation. To clarify the proof of the consequent, make a figure in which both of the affirmations posited above, with the names transposed are located on one side. Put the two negatives similar to them in respect to terms and position on the opposite side. Then leaving a little space, under the affirmatives put the affirmation with an infinite subject and under the negatives the negation of it. Mark the contradiction between the first affirmation and the first two negations and between the second affirmation and all three negations, but in the latter case mark the contradiction between it and the lowest negation as not true but imaginary. Mark, also, the contradiction between the third affirmation and negation. (1) Man is white ————contradictories———— Man is not white (2) White is man ————contradictories———— White is not man (3) Non-man is white ————contradictories———— Non-man is not white Now we can see how Aristotle proves the consequent. The negation of the affirmation "Man is white” is "Man is not white.” But if the second affirmation, "White is man,” is not the same as "Man is white,” because of the transposition of the names, its negation, [i.e., of "White is man”] will be either of these two: "Non-man is not white,” or "White is not man.” But each of these has another opposed affirmation than that assigned, namely, than "White is man.” For one of the negations, namely, "Non-man is not white,” is the negation of "Non-man is white”; the other, "White is not man” is the negation of the affirmation "Man is white,” which was the first affirmation. Therefore whatever negation is given as contradictory to the middle enunciation, it follows that there are two of one, i.e., two affirmations of one negation, and two negations of one affirmation, which is impossible. And this, as has been said, follows upon an erroneously set up hypothesis, i.e., that these affirmations are diverse because of the transposition of names.
Cajetanus lib. 2 l. 4 n. 10 Adverte hic primo quod Aristoteles per illas duas negationes, non est non homo albus, et, non est homo albus, sub disiunctione sumptas ad inveniendam negationem illius affirmationis, est homo albus, caeteras intellexit, quasi diceret: aut negatio talis affirmationis acceptabitur illa quae est vere eius negatio, aut quaecunque extranea negatio ponetur; et quodlibet dicatur, semper, stante hypothesi, sequitur unius affirmationis esse plures negationes, unam veram quae est contradictoria suae comparis habentis nomina transposita, et alteram quam tu ut distinctam acceptas, vel falso imaginaris; et e contra multarum affirmationum esse unicam negationem, ut patet in opposita figura. Ex quacunque enim illarum quatuor incipias, duas sibi oppositas aspicis. Unde notanter concludit indeterminate: quare erunt duae unius.	10. Notice first that Aristotle through these two negations, "Non-man is not white” and "White is not man,” taken under disjunction to find the negation of the affirmation "Man is white,” has comprehended other things. It is as though he said: The negation which will be taken will either be the true negation of such an affirmation or some extraneous negation; and whichever is taken, it always follows, given the hypothesis, that there are many negations of one affirmation—one which is the contradictory of it, having equal truth with the one having its name transposed, and the other which you accept as distinct, or you imagine falsely. And conversely, there is a single negation of many affirmations, as is clear in the diagram. Hence, from whichever of these four you begin, you see two opposed to it. It is significant, therefore, that Aristotle concludes indeterminately: Therefore, there will be two [negations] of one [affirmation].
Cajetanus lib. 2 l. 4 n. 11 Nota secundo quod Aristoteles contempsit probare quod contradictoria primae affirmationis sit contradictoria secundae, et similiter quod contradictoria secundae affirmationis sit contradictoria primae. Hoc enim accepit tamquam per se notum, ex eo quod non possunt simul esse verae neque simul falsae, ut manifeste patet praeposito sibi termino singulari. Non stant enim simul aliquo modo istae duae, Socrates est albus homo, Socrates non est homo albus. Nec turberis quod eas non singulares proposuit. Noverat enim supra dictum esse in primo quae affirmatio et negatio sint contradictoriae et quae non, et ideo non fuit sollicitus de exemplorum claritate. Liquet ergo ex eo quod negationes affirmationum de nominibus transpositis non sunt diversae quod nec ipsae affirmationes sunt diversae et sic nomina et verba transposita idem significant.	11. Note secondly that Aristotle does not consider it important to prove that the contradictory of the first affirmation is the contradictory of the second, and similarly that the contradictory of the second affirmation is the contradictory of the first. This he accepts as self-evident since they can neither be true at the same time nor false at the same time. This is manifestly clear when a singular term is placed first, for "Socrates is a white man” and "Socrates is not a white man” cannot be maintained at the same time in any mode. You should not be disturbed by the fact that he does not propose these singulars here, for he was undoubtedly aware that he had already stated in the first book which affirmation and negation are contradictories and which not and for this reason felt that a careful elaboration of the examples was not necessary here. It is therefore evident that since negations of affirmations with transposed names are not diverse the affirmations themselves are not diverse, and hence transposed names and verbs signify the same thing.
Cajetanus lib. 2 l. 4 n. 12 Occurrit autem dubium circa hoc, quia non videtur verum quod nominibus transpositis eadem sit affirmatio. Non enim valet: omnis homo est animal; ergo omne animal est homo. Similiter, transposito verbo, non valet: homo est animal rationale; ergo homo animal rationale est, de secundo adiacente. Licet enim nugatio committatur, tamen non sequitur primam. Ad hoc est dicendum quod sicut in rebus naturalibus est duplex transmutatio, scilicet localis, scilicet de loco ad locum, et formalis de forma ad formam; ita in enunciationibus est duplex transmutatio, situalis scilicet, quando terminus praepositus postponitur, et e converso, et formalis, quando terminus, qui erat praedicatum efficitur subiectum, et e converso vel quomodolibet, simpliciter et cetera. Et sicut quandoque fit in naturalibus transmutatio pure localis, puta quando res transfertur de loco ad locum, nulla alia variatione facta; quandoque autem fit transmutatio secundum locum, non pura sed cum variatione formali, sicut quando transit de loco frigido ad locum calidum: ita in enunciationibus quandoque fit transmutatio pure situalis, quando scilicet nomen vel verbum solo situ vocali variatur; quandoque autem fit transmutatio situalis et formalis simul, sicut contingit cum praedicatum fit subiectum, vel cum verbum tertium adiacens fit secundum. Et quoniam hic intendit Aristoteles de transmutatione nominum et verborum pure situali, ut transpositionis vocabulum praesefert, ideo dixit quod transposita nomina et verba idem significant, insinuare volens quod, si nihil aliud praeter transpositionem nominis vel verbi accidat in enunciatione, eadem manet oratio. Unde patet responsio ad instantias. Manifestum est namque quod in utraque non sola transpositio fit, sed transmutatio de subiecto in praedicatum, vel de tertio adiacente in secundum. Et per hoc patet responsio ad similia.	12. A doubt does arise, however, about the point Aristotle is making here, for it does not seem true that with transposed names the affirmation is the same. This, for example, is not valid: "Every man is an animal”; therefore, "Every animal is a man.” Nor is the following example with a transposed verb valid: "Man is a rational animal and (taking "is” as the second element), therefore "Man animal rational is”; for although it is nugatory as a whole combination, nevertheless it does not follow upon the first. The answer to this is as follows. just as there is a twofold transmutation in natural things, i.e., local, from place to place, and formal, from form to form, so in enunciations there is a twofold transmutation: a positional transmutation when a term placed before is placed after, and conversely, and a formal transmutation when a term that was a predicate is made a subject, and conversely, or in whatever mode, simply, etc. And just as in natural things sometimes a purely local transmutation is made (for instance, when a thing is transferred from place to place, with no other variation made) and sometimes a transmutation is made according to place—not simply but with a formal variation (as when a thing passes from a cold place to a hot place), so in enunciations a transmutation is sometimes made which is purely positional, i.e., when the name and verb are varied only in vocal position, and sometimes a transmutation is made which is at once formal and positional, as when the predicate becomes the subject, or the verb which is the third element added becomes the second. Aristotle’s purpose here was to treat of the purely positional transmutation of names and verbs, as the vocabulary of the transposition indicates; when he says, then, that transposed names and verbs signify the same thing, he intends to imply that if nothing other than the transposition of name and verb takes place in the enunciation, what is said remains the same. Hence, the response to the present objection is clear, for in both examples there is not only a transposition but a transmutation of subject to predicate in one case, and from an enunciation with a third element to one with a second element in the other. The response to similar questions is evident from this.