Authors/Thomas Aquinas/physics/L2/lect10

Lecture 10 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CHANCE AND FORTUNE. THE CAUSES ARE NEITHER MORE NOR LESS THAN FOUR

Latin	English
	LECTURE 10 (197 a 36-198 a 21) THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CHANCE AND FORTUNE. THE CAUSES ARE NEITHER MORE NOR LESS THAN FOUR
lib. 2 l. 10 n. 1 Postquam philosophus determinavit de fortuna et casu quantum ad ea in quibus conveniunt, hic ostendit differentiam eorum ad invicem. Et dividitur in duas partes: in prima ostendit differentiam fortunae et casus; in secunda ostendit ubi maxime haec differentia consistit, ibi: maxime autem et cetera. Prima dividitur in duas: in prima ostendit differentiam inter casum et fortunam; in secunda recapitulat quae dicta sunt de utroque, ibi: quare manifestum est et cetera.	226. Having treated fortune and chance with reference to those aspects in which they are alike, the Philosopher here explains the difference between them. This section is divided into two parts. First he explains the difference between fortune and chance. Secondly, where he says, ‘The difference between ...’ (197 b 32 #235), he explains that in which this difference primarily consists. The first part is divided into two parts. First he explains the difference between chance and fortune. Secondly, where he says, ‘Hence it is clear ...’ (197 b 18 #235), he summarizes what he has said about each of them.
lib. 2 l. 10 n. 2 Circa primum duo facit: primo ponit differentiam inter casum et fortunam; et dicit quod in hoc differunt, quod casus est in plus quam fortuna, quia omne quod est a fortuna est a casu, sed non convertitur.	227. Concerning the first part he makes two points. First he explains the difference between chance and fortune. He says that they differ by reason of the fact that chance pertains to more things than fortune, because everything which is by fortune is by chance, but not conversely.
lib. 2 l. 10 n. 3 Secundo, ibi: fortuna quidem enim etc., manifestat praedictam differentiam. Et primo ostendit in quibus sit fortuna; secundo quod casus in pluribus est, ibi: sed casus in aliis et cetera. Circa primum duo facit: primo ostendit in quibus sit fortuna; secundo concludit in quibus non sit, ibi: et propter hoc neque inanimatum et cetera.	228. Secondly, where he says, ‘Chance and what results...’ (197 b 1), he clarifies the difference mentioned above. First he designates the things in which fortune is found. Secondly, where he says, ‘The spontaneous ...’ (197 b 14 #231), he shows that chance is found in more things. Concerning the first part he makes two points. First he designates the things in which fortune is found. Secondly, where he says, ‘Thus an inanimate thing ...’ (197 b 6 #230), he draws a conclusion about those things in which fortune is not found.
lib. 2 l. 10 n. 4 Dicit ergo primo quod fortuna et id quod est a fortuna, invenitur in illis quibus bene contingere aliquid dicitur; quia in quibus est fortuna, potest esse eufortunium et infortunium. Dicitur autem bene contingere illi aliquid cuius est agere. Eius autem proprie est agere, quod habet dominium sui actus; quod autem non habet dominium sui actus, magis agitur quam agat; et ideo actus non est in potestate eius quod agitur, sed magis eius quod agit ipsum. Et quia vita practica, sive activa est eorum quae habent dominium sui actus (in his enim invenitur operari secundum virtutem vel vitium), ideo necesse est quod fortuna sit circa practica. Et huius signum inducit, quia fortuna videtur vel idem esse felicitati vel ei esse propinqua: unde vulgariter felices bene fortunati vocantur. Secundum enim illos qui felicitatem in bonis exterioribus consistere putant, felicitas est idem fortunae: secundum illos vero qui bona exteriora, in quibus plurimum habet locum fortuna, dicunt deservire instrumentaliter ad felicitatem, secundum hoc bona fortuna est propinqua felicitati, quia coadiuvat ad ipsam. Unde cum felicitas sit quaedam operatio (est enim eupraxia, idest bona operatio, scilicet virtutis perfectae, ut dicitur in I Ethic.), sequitur quod fortuna sit in illis quibus contingit bene agere vel impediri ab hoc. Et hoc est bene contingere vel male contingere. Unde cum aliquis sit dominus sui actus inquantum voluntarie agit, sequitur quod in illis tantum contingat aliquid a fortuna esse, quae voluntarie agit, non autem in aliis.	229. He says, therefore, first that fortune and that which is by fortune are found in those things in which something is said to happen well. For fortune is found in those things in which there can be good fortune and misfortune. Now a thing is said to happen well for him to whom action belongs. However, action belongs properly to him who has dominion over his action. For what does not have dominion over its action is that which is acted upon rather than that which acts. And thus action is not in the power of that which is acted upon, but rather in the power of that which acts. Now since the active or practical life pertains to those who have dominion over their acts (for here is where operation according to virtue or vice is found), it is necessary that fortune pertains to the practical. A sign of this is the fact that fortune seems to be the same as happiness, or very nearly so. Hence the happy are commonly called the fortunate. For according to those who think that happiness consists in external goods, happiness is the same as fortune; according to those, however, who say that external goods, in which fortune plays a great part, help as instruments in the attainment of happiness, good fortune is close to happiness because it helps one attain it. Hence, since happiness is a certain operation (for it is good operation, i.e., that of perfected virtue, as is said in Ethics, I:7, it follows that fortune pertains to the actions in which one happens to act well or is impeded from acting well. And this means that things turn out either well or badly. Hence, since one has dominion over his actions insofar as he acts voluntarily, it follows that in those actions alone where one acts voluntarily should something happen by fortune, but not in others.
lib. 2 l. 10 n. 5 Deinde cum dicit: et propter hoc neque inanimatum etc., concludit ex praemissis in quibus non sit fortuna. Et dicit quod propter hoc quod fortuna non est nisi in his quae voluntarie agunt, inde est quod neque inanimatum neque puer neque bestia, cum non agant voluntarie quasi liberum arbitrium habentes (quod hic dicit propositum), non agunt a fortuna. Unde nec eufortunium nec infortunium in his potest accidere nisi similitudinarie: sicut quidam dixit quod lapides ex quibus fiunt altaria, sunt fortunati, quia eis honor et reverentia exhibetur, cum lapides eis coniuncti conculcentur; quod dicitur per similitudinem ad homines, in quibus honorati videntur bene fortunati; hi autem qui conculcantur, dicuntur male fortunati. Sed quamvis praemissis non contingat agere a fortuna, nihil tamen prohibet ea pati a fortuna, cum aliquod agens voluntarium circa ea operatur: sicut dicimus esse eufortunium cum aliquis homo invenit thesaurum, vel infortunium cum percutitur a lapide cadente.	230. Next where he says, ‘Thus an inanimate thing...’(197 b 6), he draws from the above a conclusion about the things in which fortune is not found. He says that since fortune is found only in those who act voluntarily, it follows that neither an inanimate thing, nor a child, nor a beast act by fortune, since they do not act voluntarily as having free choice (which is here called ‘that which is proposed’). Hence, neither good fortune nor misfortune can happen to them except metaphorically. Thus, someone said that the stones from which altars are built are fortunate because honour and reverence are shown them, but the stones next to the altar stones are walked upon. This is said because of a certain likeness to men among whom the honoured seemed to be fortunate, whereas those stones which are walked upon are called unfortunate. But although it follows from the foregoing that such things do not act by fortune, there is nothing to prevent them from being acted upon by fortune. For some voluntary agent may act upon them. Thus, we say that it is good fortune when a man finds a treasure, or it is a misfortune when he is struck by a falling stone.
lib. 2 l. 10 n. 6 Deinde cum dicit: sed casus et in aliis etc., ostendit quod casus est etiam in aliis. Et circa hoc tria facit: primo ostendit quod casus est in aliis; secundo concludit quandam conclusionem ex dictis, ibi: quare manifestum est etc.; tertio ad eius manifestationem quoddam signum inducit, ibi: signum autem est et cetera.	231. Next where he says, ‘The spontaneous ...’ (197 b 14), he points out that chance is found also in other things. Concerning this he makes three points. First, he shows that chance is found in other things. Secondly, where he says, ‘Hence it is clear ...’ (197 b 18 #233), he draws a certain conclusion from what was said above. Thirdly, where he says, ‘This is indicated ...’ (197 b 23 #234), he uses an example to clarify the point.
lib. 2 l. 10 n. 7 Dicit ergo primo: quod casus non solum est in hominibus, qui voluntarie agunt, sed etiam in aliis animalibus, et etiam in rebus inanimatis. Et ponit exemplum de aliis animalibus, sicut dicitur quod equus casu venit, quando salutem adeptus est veniens, licet non venerit causa salutis. Aliud exemplum ponit in rebus inanimatis: dicimus enim quod tripoda cecidit casu, quia sic stat per casum ut sit apta ad sedendum, licet non ista de causa ceciderit, ut staret apta ad sedendum.	232. He says, therefore, first that chance is found not only in men, who act voluntarily, but also in other animals and even in inanimate things. He gives an example dealing with other animals. It is said that a horse comes by chance when his coming is conducive to his safety, although he did not come for the sake of safety. He gives another example taken from inanimate things. We say that a tripod falls by chance because, as it stands, it is suitable for sitting, although it did not fall for the sake of this, i.e., so that someone might sit on it.
lib. 2 l. 10 n. 8 Deinde cum dicit: quare manifestum est etc., concludit ex praemissis quod in iis quae simpliciter fiunt propter aliquid, quando non fiunt causa eius quod accidit, sed fiunt causa alicuius extrinseci, tunc dicimus quod fiant a casu. Sed a fortuna dicimus illa fieri tantum de numero eorum quae fiunt a casu, quaecumque accidunt in habentibus propositum.	233. Next where he says, ‘Hence it is clear...’ (197 b 18), he draws the following conclusion from the above. When things which come to be simply for the sake of something do not come to be for the sake of that which happens, but for the sake of something extrinsic, then we say that these things come to be by chance. But we say that among the things which come to be by chance, only those things which happen in those who have free choice come to be by fortune.
lib. 2 l. 10 n. 9 Deinde cum dicit: signum autem est etc., manifestat quod in conclusione posuerat, scilicet quod casus accidat in his quae sunt propter aliquid. Et accipit signum ab eo quod dicitur vanum, quod secundum nomen in Graeco propinquum est casui. Dicitur autem vanum, cum id quod est propter aliquid, non fiat eius causa, idest cum non accidat ex eo propter quod fit; sicut si aliquis ambulet ad deponendum superflua naturae, si hoc non accidat deambulanti, dicitur frustra deambulasse, et ambulatio eius esset vana. Ac si hoc sit frustra vel vanum, quod aptum natum est fieri causa alicuius, cum non perficiat illud cuius causa natum est fieri. Et quare dicat cuius causa natum est fieri, exponit subdens quia si aliquis dicat se frustra balneatum quia eo balneato non deficit sol, derisorie diceret; quia hoc quod est ipsum esse balneatum, non erat natum fieri propter hoc quod deficeret sol. Unde casus, qui in Graeco dicitur automatum, idest per se frustra, accidit in his quae sunt propter aliquid, sicut et id quod est frustra vel vanum: quia per se frustra ipsum frustra secundum suum nomen significat, sicut per se homo ipsum hominem et per se bonum ipsum bonum. Et exemplificat in his quae casu fiunt, sicut cum dicitur quod lapis cadendo percutiens aliquem, cecidit non percutiendi causa. Ergo cecidit ab eo quod est per se vanum vel per se frustra, quia non natus est propter hoc cadere: cadit enim aliquando lapis ab aliquo emissus percutiendi causa. Quamvis autem casus et vanum conveniant in hoc quod utrumque est in his quae sunt propter aliquid, differunt tamen, quia vanum dicitur ex hoc quod non consequitur illud quod intendebatur; casus autem dicitur ex hoc quod consequitur aliquid aliud quod non intendebatur. Unde quandoque est vanum et casus simul, puta cum non accidit illud quod intendebatur, sed accidit aliquid aliud: quandoque autem est casus sed non vanum, cum accidit et illud quod intendebatur et aliud: quandoque autem est vanum et non casus, quando non accidit illud quod intendebatur neque aliquid aliud.	234. Next where he says, ‘This is indicated.. .’(197 b 23), he clarifies what he has stated in this conclusion, i.e., that chance occurs in those things which happen for the sake of something. A sign of this is the fact that the word ‘vain’ is used, which in the Greek is close to chance. For we use the term ‘vain’ when that which is for the sake of something does not come to be because of that something, i.e., when that for the sake of which something is done does not occur. Thus if one should walk in order to evacuate the bowels, and if this should not occur to the walker, then he is said to have walked in vain, and his walking would be vain. Thus that which is suitable for the coming to be of something is vain and frustrated when it does not accomplish that for whose coming to be it is suitable. He explains why he says ‘that for whose coming to be it is suitable’. If someone were to say that he bathed in vain because the sun was not eclipsed while he bathed, he would speak ridiculously, because bathing oneself is not apt for producing an eclipse of the sun. Hence chance, which in the Greek is called ‘automatum’, i.e., per se vain, occurs in those things which are for the sake of something. This is also true of that which is frustrated or vain. For the name per se vain signifies the very thing which is frustrated, just as per se man signifies man himself and per se good signifies good itself. He gives an example of things which happen by chance. Thus fit is chance] when it is said that a stone, which strikes someone when falling, did not fall for the purpose of striking him. Therefore it fen because of that which is per se vain or per se frustrated, for the stone does not naturally fall for this purpose. However at times a stone does fall as thrown by someone for the purpose of hitting another. However, although chance and the vain are alike insofar as each is among the things which are for the sake of something, nevertheless they also differ. For a thing is called vain because of the fact that that which was intended does not follow, whereas a thing is called chance because of the fact that something else which was not intended does follow. Hence sometimes a thing is vain and chance at the same time, for example, when that which was intended does not occur but something else does occur. However, sometimes there is chance but not the vain, as when both that which was intended and something else occur. And there is the vain and no chance when neither that which was intended nor anything else occurs.
lib. 2 l. 10 n. 10 Deinde cum dicit: maxime autem etc., ostendit in quibus maxime casus differat a fortuna. Et dicit quod maxime differt in illis quae fiunt a natura; quia ibi habet locum casus, sed non fortuna. Cum enim aliquid fit extra naturam in operationibus naturae, puta cum nascitur sextus digitus, tunc non dicimus quod fiat a fortuna, sed magis ab eo quod est per se frustra, idest a casu. Et sic possumus accipere aliam differentiam inter casum et fortunam, quod eorum quae sunt a casu, causa est intrinseca, sicut eorum quae sunt a natura; eorum vero quae sunt a fortuna, causa est extrinseca, sicut et eorum quae sunt a proposito. Et ultimo concludit quod dictum est quid sit per se frustra, idest casus, et quid fortuna, et quomodo differant ab invicem.	235. Next where he says, ‘The difference ...’ (197 b 32), he explains that in which chance most of all differs from fortune. He says that they differ most of all in the things which happen by nature, because chance has a place here but fortune does not. For when in the operations of nature something happens outside of nature, for example, when a six fingered person is born, we do not say that this happens by fortune, but rather because of that which is per se vain, i.e., by chance. And so we can take as another difference between chance and fortune the fact that the cause of those things which are by chance is intrinsic, just as the cause of those things which are by nature is intrinsic. But the cause of those things which are by fortune is extrinsic, just as the cause of those things which are from free choice is extrinsic. And he finally concludes that he has now explained what the per se vain or chance is, what fortune is, and how they differ from each other.
lib. 2 l. 10 n. 11 Deinde cum dicit: sed modorum causarum etc., ostendit ad quod genus causae casus et fortuna reducantur: et primo ostendit propositum; secundo ex hoc improbat quandam opinionem superius positam, ibi: quoniam autem casus et cetera. Dicit ergo primo quod tam casus quam fortuna reducuntur ad genus causae moventis: quia casus et fortuna vel est causa eorum quae sunt a natura, vel eorum quae sunt ab intelligentia, ut ex dictis patet; unde cum natura et intelligentia sint causa ut unde est principium motus, etiam fortuna et casus ad idem genus reducuntur. Sed tamen, quia casus et fortuna sunt causae per accidens, eorum multitudo est indeterminata, ut supra dictum est.	236. Next where he says, ‘Both belong ...’ (198 a 2), he points out the genus of cause to which chance and fortune are reduced. First he states his position. Secondly, where he says, ‘Spontaneity and chance...’(198 a 5 #237), he disproves from this a certain opinion mentioned above [L7 #203]. He says, therefore, first that both chance and fortune are reduced to the genus of the moving cause. For chance and fortune are causes either of those things which proceed from nature or of those things which proceed from intelligence, as is clear from what has been said. Hence, since nature and intelligence are causes as things from which motion begins, so fortune and chance also are reduced to the same genus. But since chance and fortune are per accidens causes, their number is indeterminate, as was said above [L9 #217,220].
lib. 2 l. 10 n. 12 Deinde cum dicit: quoniam autem casus etc., excludit opinionem ponentium fortunam vel casum esse causam caeli et omnium mundanorum. Et dicit quod quia casus et fortuna sunt causae per accidens eorum quorum intellectus et natura sunt causae per se; causa autem per accidens non est prior ea quae est per se, sicut nihil per accidens est prius eo quod est per se; sequitur quod casus et fortuna sint causae posteriores quam intellectus et natura. Unde si ponatur quod casus sit causa caeli, sicut quidam posuerunt, ut supra dictum est; sequetur quod intellectus et natura per prius sint causa aliquorum aliorum, et postea totius universi. Causa etiam totius universi prior esse videtur quam causa alicuius partis universi; cum quaelibet pars universi ordinetur ad perfectionem universi. Hoc autem videtur inconveniens, quod aliqua alia causa sit prior quam ea quae est causa caeli: unde inconveniens est quod casus sit causa caeli.	237. Next where he says, ‘Spontaneity and chance...’ (198 a 5), he refutes the opinion of those who maintain that fortune and chance are the causes of the heavens and of all worldly things. He says that since chance and fortune are per accidens causes of those things of which intellect and nature are the per se causes, and since a per accidens cause is not prior to a per se cause, as nothing per accidens is prior to that which is per se, it follows that chance and fortune are causes which are posterior to intellect and nature. Hence if it should be held that chance is the cause of the heavens, as some maintained, as was said above [L7 #203] it would follow that intellect and nature are first of all causes of some other things and afterwards causes of the whole universe. Moreover, the cause of the whole universe seems to be prior to the cause of some part of the universe, since any part of the universe is ordered to the perfection of the universe. But it seems to be inconsistent that some other cause is prior to that which is the cause of the heavens. Hence it is inconsistent that chance is the cause of the heavens.
lib. 2 l. 10 n. 13 Considerandum est autem quod si ea quae fortuito vel casualiter accidunt, idest praeter intentionem causarum inferiorum, reducantur in aliquam causam superiorem ordinantem ipsa; in comparatione ad illam causam non possunt dici fortuita vel casualia: unde illa causa superior non potest dici fortuna.	238. Furthermore we must consider that if those things which happen fortuitously or by chance, i.e., outside the intention of inferior causes, are reduced to some superior cause which orders them, then in relation to this latter cause they cannot be said to be fortuitous or by chance. Hence that superior cause cannot be called fortune.
lib. 2 l. 10 n. 14 Deinde cum dicit: quae autem sunt causae etc., ostendit quod causae non sunt plures iis quae sunt dictae. Quod quidem manifestatur sic. Hoc quod dico propter quid, quaerit de causa; sed ad propter quid non respondetur nisi aliqua dictarum causarum; non igitur sunt plures causae quam quae dictae sunt. Et hoc est quod dicit, quod hoc quod dico propter quid, tot est secundum numerum, quot sunt causae praedictae. Quandoque enim propter quid reducitur ultimo in quod quid est, idest in definitionem, ut patet in omnibus immobilibus, sicut sunt mathematica; in quibus propter quid reducitur ad definitionem recti vel commensurati vel alicuius alterius quod demonstratur in mathematicis. Cum enim definitio recti anguli sit, quod constituatur ex linea super aliam cadente, quae ex utraque parte faciat duos angulos aequales; si quaeratur propter quid iste angulus sit rectus, respondetur quia constituitur ex linea faciente duos angulos aequales ex utraque parte; et ita est in aliis. Quandoque vero reducitur propter quid in primum movens; ut propter quid aliqui pugnaverant? Quia furati sunt: hoc enim est quod incitavit ad pugnam. Quandoque autem reducitur in causam finalem; ut si quaeramus cuius causa aliqui pugnant, respondetur, ut dominentur. Quandoque autem reducitur in causam materialem; ut si quaeratur quare istud corpus est corruptibile, respondetur, quia compositum est ex contrariis. Sic ergo patet has esse causas, et tot.	239. Next where he says, ‘It is clear then ...’ (198 a 14), he shows that the causes are not more than those mentioned. This is clarified as follows. The question ‘why’ asks for the cause. But only the above mentioned causes answer the question ‘why’. Therefore, the causes are not more than those which were mentioned. He says that the answers to the question ‘why’ are the same in number as the above mentioned causes. For sometimes the ‘why’ is reduced finally to what the thing is, i.e., to the definition, as is clear in all immobile things. The mathematicals are of this sort, in which the ‘why’ is reduced to the definition of the straight or of the commensurate, or of some other thing which is demonstrated in mathematics. Since a right angle is defined as that angle which is formed by the falling of one line upon another which makes of both parts two equal angles, then if it should be asked why an angle is a right angle, the reply would be because it is formed by a line making two equal angles from each part. And it is the same in the other instances. Sometimes the ‘why’ is reduced to the first moving cause. Thus, why does someone fight? Because he has stolen. For this is what brought on the fight. Sometimes it is reduced to the final cause, as if we should ask for the sake of what does someone fight, and the answer is that he might rule. Sometimes it is reduced to the material cause, as when it is asked why this body is corruptible, and the answer is because it is composed of contraries. Thus it is clear that these are the causes and they are just so many.
lib. 2 l. 10 n. 15 Necesse est autem quatuor esse causas. Quia cum causa sit ad quam sequitur esse alterius, esse eius quod habet causam, potest considerari dupliciter: uno modo absolute, et sic causa essendi est forma per quam aliquid est in actu; alio modo secundum quod de potentia ente fit actu ens. Et quia omne quod est in potentia, reducitur ad actum per id quod est actu ens; ex hoc necesse est esse duas alias causas, scilicet materiam, et agentem qui reducit materiam de potentia in actum. Actio autem agentis ad aliquid determinatum tendit, sicut ab aliquo determinato principio procedit: nam omne agens agit quod est sibi conveniens; id autem ad quod tendit actio agentis, dicitur causa finalis. Sic igitur necesse est esse causas quatuor. Sed quia forma est causa essendi absolute, aliae vero tres sunt causae essendi secundum quod aliquid accipit esse; inde est quod in immobilibus non considerantur aliae tres causae, sed solum causa formalis.	240. Furthermore there must be four causes. A cause is that upon which the existence of another follows. Now the existence of that which has a cause can be considered in two ways. First it is considered absolutely, and thus the cause of the existing is the form by which something is in act. Secondly it is considered insofar as a being comes to be in act from being in potency. And since everything which is in potency is reduced to act by that which is a being in act, it is necessary that there be two other causes, namely the matter and the agent which reduces the matter from potency to act. However, the action of the agent tends toward something determinate, and thus it proceeds from some determinate principle. For every agent does that which is suitable to it. But that toward which the action of the agent tends is called the final cause. Therefore, there must be four causes. But since the form is the cause of existing absolutely, the other three are causes of existence insofar as something receives existence. Hence in immobile things the other three causes are not considered, but only the formal cause is considered.