Authors/Thomas Aquinas/physics/L7/lect3

Lecture 3 In local motion mover and moved must be together

Latin	English
	Lecture 3 In local motion mover and moved must be together
lib. 7 l. 3 n. 1 Quia philosophus in demonstratione praecedenti supposuerat quod movens est contiguum vel continuum mobili, hoc intendit nunc probare. Et primo ostendit propositum; secundo probat quoddam, quod in hac probatione supponit, ibi: quoniam autem quae alterantur et cetera. Circa primum duo facit: primo proponit intentum; secundo probat propositum, ibi: quoniam autem tres sunt motus et cetera. Dicit ergo primo, quod movens et motum sunt simul. Sed aliquid dicitur movere dupliciter. Uno modo sicut finis movet agentem; et tale movens aliquando distans est ab agente quem movet: alio modo sicut movet id quod est principium motus; et de tali movente hic intelligit. Et propter hoc addidit: non sicut cuius causa, sed unde est principium motus. Item movens sicut principium motus, quoddam est immediatum, et quoddam remotum. Intelligit autem hic de immediate movente, et ideo dixit primum movens; ut per primum significetur immediatum mobili, non autem id quod est primum in ordine moventium. Et quia in quinto dixerat ea esse simul quae sunt in eodem loco, posset aliquis credere ex hoc quod dicit quod movens et motum simul sunt, quod quando unum corpus movetur ab altero, quod oporteat ambo esse in eodem loco: et ideo ad hoc excludendum subiungit, quod simul dicit hic, non quidem esse in eodem loco, sed quia nihil est medium inter movens et motum; secundum quod contacta vel continua sunt simul, quia termini eorum sunt simul, vel quia sunt unum. Et quia in praecedenti demonstratione processerat solum de motu locali, posset aliquis credere quod hoc haberet veritatem solum in huiusmodi motu: et ideo ad hoc removendum subiungit, quod hoc dictum est communiter, quod movens et motum sunt simul, et non specialiter de motu locali; quia hoc est commune in omni specie motus, quod movens et motum sunt simul, modo exposito.	897. In the previous demonstration the Philosopher had assumed that a mover is continuous, or at least contiguous, with the mobile. This he now intends to prove. First he proves his proposition; Secondly, he proves something he had assumed in his proof, (L. 4) About the first he does two things: First he states his intention; Secondly, he proves his proposition, at 898. He says therefore first (682 243 a3) that mover and moved are together. But something is said to be “moved” in two senses. In one sense as the end moves the agent, and such a mover is sometimes distant from the agent it moves; in another sense as that moves which is the actual beginner of the motion. It is of this latter that Aristotle speaks, and that is why he adds “not as that for the sake of which, but as that from which the source of motion is.” Again, a mover as principle of motion can be immediate or remote. Aristotle speaks of what causes motion immediately and calls it the “first mover” which refers not to what is first in the series of movers but to a mover that is immediate to the mobile. And because in Book V he had said that things in the same place are together, one might, conclude from that and from the statement that mover and moved are together, that when one body is moved by another they must both be in the same place. Therefore, to prevent this misunderstanding, he adds that “together” is not taken here in the sense of being in the same place, but in the sense that nothing is intermediate between the mover and the moved. It is in this sense that things in contact, or things that are continuous are together, because their extremities are together or are one and the same. And because in the previous demonstration he proceeded solely along the line of local motion, this does not mean that his proposition is true only in cases of local motion. Therefore, to exclude this possible misunderstanding, he adds that the statement “mover and moved are together” must be taken in a sense common to all motions, for it is found in every kind of motion that mover and moved are together, in the sense explained.
lib. 7 l. 3 n. 2 Deinde cum dicit: quoniam autem tres etc., probat propositum. Et circa hoc duo facit: primo enumerat species motus; secundo in singulis probat propositum, ibi: omne igitur quod fertur et cetera. Dicit ergo primo quod tres sunt motus: unus secundum locum, qui dicitur loci mutatio: alius secundum qualitatem, qui dicitur alteratio: alius secundum quantitatem, qui dicitur augmentum et decrementum. Non facit autem mentionem de generatione et corruptione, quia non sunt motus, ut in quinto probatum est. Sed cum sint termini motus, scilicet alterationis, ut habitum est in sexto, per hoc quod probatur propositum in alteratione, sequitur etiam idem de generatione et corruptione. Sicut igitur tres sunt species motus, ita tres sunt species mobilium, et etiam moventium; et in omnibus est verum quod dictum est, scilicet quod movens et motum sint simul, ut ostendetur in singulis. Sed primo hoc est ostendendum in motu locali, qui est primus motuum, ut in octavo probabitur.	898. Then at (683 243 a5) he proves his proposition. About this he does two things: First he enumerates the species of motion; Secondly, he proves his proposition for each kind, at 899. He says therefore first (683 243 a5) that there are three kinds of motion: one is in respect to place and is called “local motion”; one is in respect of quantity and is called “growth and decrease; the third is in respect of quality and is called “alteration.” He makes no mention of generation and ceasing to-be, because they are not motions, as was explained in Book V. However, since generation and ceasing-to-be are the termini of a motion, i.e., of alteration, as was proved in Book VI, then if he proves his proposition in regard to alteration, it will also be proved in regard to generation and ceasing-to-be. Now just as there are three kinds of motion, so there are three kinds of mobile and also three kinds of mover. And in all it is true that the mover and the moved are together, as will be shown for each case. But first it must be proved for local motion: which is the first of motions, as will be shown in Book VIII.
lib. 7 l. 3 n. 3 Deinde cum dicit: omne igitur quod fertur etc., ostendit propositum in singulis trium praedictorum motuum: et primo in motu locali; secundo in motu alterationis, ibi: at vero neque alterati etc.; tertio in motu augmenti et decrementi, ibi: et quod augetur et augens et cetera. Circa primum duo facit: primo ostendit propositum in quibus magis est manifestum; secundo in quibus magis latet, ibi: quod autem ab alio movetur et cetera. Dicit ergo primo, quod necesse est dicere quod omne quod movetur secundum locum, aut movetur a seipso aut ab altero. Quod autem dicit a seipso aliquid moveri, potest intelligi dupliciter. Uno modo ratione partium, sicut ostendet in octavo quod moventium seipsa, una pars movet et alia movetur: alio modo primo et per se, ut scilicet aliquid secundum se totum moveat se totum, sicut supra probavit quod hoc modo nihil movet seipsum. Si autem concedatur utroque modo aliquid moveri a seipso, manifestum est quod movens erit in ipso quod movetur, vel sicut idem est in seipso, vel sicut pars est in toto, ut anima in animali. Et sic sequetur quod simul sit movens et quod movetur, ita quod nihil erit ipsorum medium.	899. Then at (684 243 a12) he proves his proposition for each kind of motion: First in local motion; Secondly, in the motion of alteration, in L. 4; Thirdly, in the motion of growth and decrease, also in L. 4. About the first he does two things: First he shows the proposition in cases that are evident; Secondly, in less evident cases, at 900. He says therefore first (684 243 a12) that we must say that whatever is being moved in respect of place is moved either by itself or by something else. To say that something is “moved by itself” can be taken in two senses: first, by reason of the parts, as when we shall prove in Book VIII that in things that move themselves one part moves and another part is moved; secondly, first and per se, i.e., so that the whole moves itself according to itself and as a whole, as when he proved earlier that in this way nothing moves itself. But if it be granted that something is moved by itself in both ways, it is clear that the mover will be in what is being moved, either in the way that a same thing is in itself, or as a part is in a whole, as a soul is in an animal. Thus it will follow that the mover and the moved are together in such a way that nothing exists between them.
lib. 7 l. 3 n. 4 Deinde cum dicit: quod autem ab alio movetur etc., ostendit idem in iis quae moventur secundum locum ab alio, de quibus minus est manifestum. Et circa hoc tria facit: primo distinguit modos quibus aliquid contingit ab altero moveri; secundo reducit eos ad duos, ibi: manifestum igitur est etc.; tertio in illis duobus probat propositum, ibi: hoc autem manifestum et cetera. Circa primum duo facit. Primo dividit modos quibus aliquid movetur ab altero; et dicit quod sunt quatuor, scilicet pulsio, tractio, vectio et vertigo. Omnes enim motus qui sunt ab alio, reducuntur in istos.	900. Then at (685 243 a15) he proves the same, in regard to things that are moved according to place by something else, in those cases where it is less evident. About this he does three things: First he distinguishes the ways in which something happens to be moved by something else; Secondly, he reduces these ways to two ways, at 906 bis; Thirdly, he proves his proposition for these two ways, at 907. About the first he does two things: First he divides the ways in which something is moved by something else into four: pushing, pulling, carrying and twirling. For all motions that are caused by something distinct from the moved are reduced to these four.
lib. 7 l. 3 n. 5 Secundo ibi: pulsionis igitur etc., manifestat praemissos quatuor modos. Et primo manifestat pulsionem, quae est cum movens facit aliquod mobile a se distare movendo. Dividit autem pulsionem in duo, scilicet in impulsionem et expulsionem. Dicitur autem impulsio, quando movens sic pellit aliquod mobile, quod non deficit ipsi deferendo ipsum, sed simul cum eo tendit quo ducit: expulsio autem est, quando movens sic movet mobile, quod tamen deficit ei deserendo ipsum, nec comitatur ipsum usque ad finem motus.	901. Secondly, he explains these four ways. First he explains pushing as that which occurs when the mover makes a mobile be distant from him by moving it. Pushing is of two kinds: pushing on and pushing off. Pushing on occurs when the mover pushes a mobile but does not desert it but rather accompanies it to the place it is going. Pushing off (expulsion) occurs when the mover moves a mobile in such a way that it deserts and does not accompany it to the very end of the motion.
lib. 7 l. 3 n. 6 Secundo ibi: vectio autem etc., manifestat de vectione; et dicit quod vectio fundatur in tribus aliis motibus, scilicet pulsione, tractione et vertigine, sicut quod est per accidens fundatur in eo quod est per se. Illud enim quod vehitur, non movetur per se, sed per accidens, inquantum scilicet aliquid alterum movetur, in quo ipsum est, sicut cum aliquis vehitur a navi in qua est; vel super quod est, sicut cum aliquis vehitur equo. Illud autem quod vehit, movetur per se, eo quod non est procedere in iis quae moventur per accidens in infinitum. Et sic oportet quod primum vehens moveatur aliquo motu per se, vel pulsu vel tractu vel vertigine. Ex quo manifestum est quod vectio in tribus aliis motibus continetur.	902. Then at (687 243 b3) he explains carrying as a motion based on three other motions; namely, pushing, pulling and twirling, in the same way that what is per accidens is based on what is per se. For that which is carried is not moved per se but per accidens, inasmuch as something in which it exists is being moved; as, for example, when someone is carried by a ship on which he is, or carried by a horse upon which he is. That which carries is moved per se, since one does not proceed ad infinitum in things that are moved per accidens. And thus the first vehicle is moved per se on account of some motion which is either a push or a pull or a twirls. From this it is clear that carrying is contained in the other three motions.
lib. 7 l. 3 n. 7 Tertio ibi: tractio autem etc., manifestat tertium modum, scilicet tractum. Et sciendum est quod tractio a pulsione differt, quia in pulsione movens se habet ad mobile ut terminus a quo est motus eius, in tractu vero se habet ut terminus ad quem. Illud ergo trahere dicitur, quod movet alterum ad seipsum. Movere autem aliquid secundum locum ad seipsum contingit tripliciter. Uno modo sicut finis movet; unde et finis dicitur trahere, secundum illud poetae: trahit sua quemque voluptas: et hoc modo potest dici quod locus trahit id quod naturaliter movetur ad locum. Alio modo potest dici aliquid trahere, quia movet illud ad seipsum alterando aliqualiter, ex qua alteratione contingit quod alteratum moveatur secundum locum: et hoc modo magnes dicitur trahere ferrum. Sicut enim generans movet gravia et levia, inquantum dat eis formam per quam moventur ad locum, ita et magnes dat aliquam qualitatem ferro, per quam movetur ad ipsum. Et quod hoc sit verum patet ex tribus. Primo quidem quia magnes non trahit ferrum ex quacumque distantia, sed ex propinquo: si autem ferrum moveretur ad magnetem solum sicut ad finem, sicut grave ad suum locum, ex qualibet distantia tenderet ad ipsum. Secundo quia si magnes aliis perungatur, ferrum attrahere non potest; quasi aliis vim alterativam ipsius impedientibus, aut etiam in contrarium alterantibus. Tertio quia ad hoc quod magnes attrahat ferrum, oportet prius ferrum liniri cum magnete, maxime si magnes sit parvus; quasi ex magnete aliquam virtutem ferrum accipiat ut ad eum moveatur. Sic igitur magnes attrahit ferrum non solum sicut finis, sed etiam sicut movens et alterans. Tertio modo dicitur aliquid attrahere, quia movet ad seipsum motu locali tantum. Et sic definitur hic tractio, prout unum corpus trahit alterum, ita quod trahens simul moveatur cum eo quod trahitur.	903. Then at (688 243 b12) he explains the third way, i.e., pulling. And note that pulling differs from pushing, because in the latter the mover is related to the mobile as terminus a quo of its motion, whereas in pulling he is related as the terminus ad quem. Therefore only what moves something to itself is said to “pull.” However, the act of moving something to oneself in respect of place occurs in three ways: first in the way that an end moves, i.e., in the sense in which the poets declare that the end is said to pull, when they say that one’s own desire pulls him. It is in this sense that a place may be said to pull what is naturally moved to a place. In a second way something is said to pull something else, when it moves it to itself by altering it somehow, so that as a result the altered object is moved in respect of place. It is in this way that a magnet is said to pull iron. For just as the generator of a thing moves heavy and light things inasmuch as it gives them the form through which they are moved to their place, so the magnet confers some quality on the iron by which it is moved toward itself. That this is true he makes clear by three facts: First, because a magnet does not draw iron from just any distance but within a certain limit of nearness. But if the iron were moved to the magnet only as to an end in the way that a heavy body is moved to its place, it should do so no matter how great the distance they are separated by. Secondly, because if the magnet be covered with oil, it cannot draw the iron, because the oil impedes the altering quality or modifies it. Thirdly, because in order that a magnet attract iron, the iron must first be rubbed by the magnet, especially if the magnet is weak. It is as though the iron receives from the magnet some power by which it is moved toward it. Thus a magnet pulls the iron not only as an end but as a moving cause and as an altering cause. In a third way something is said to pull something else, because it moves it to itself in respect of local motion only. And it is in this sense that Aristotle here defines “pulling,” i.e., in the sense that one body pulls another in such a way that the puller accompanies what it pulls.
lib. 7 l. 3 n. 8 Hoc est ergo quod dicit, quod tractio est cum motus trahentis ad seipsum vel ad alterum, sit velocior, non separatus ab eo quod trahitur. Dicit autem: ad ipsum vel ad alterum, quia movens voluntarium potest uti altero ut seipso: unde potest ab alio pellere sicut a seipso, et ad aliud trahere sicut ad seipsum. Sed hoc in motu naturali non contingit; immo semper pulsio naturalis est a pellente, et tractio naturalis ad trahentem. Addit autem: cum velocior sit motus; quia contingit quandoque quod id quod trahitur, etiam per se movetur illuc quo trahitur; sed a trahente velociori motu compellitur moveri: et quia trahens movet suo motu, oportet quod motus trahentis sit velocior quam motus naturalis eius quod trahitur. Adiungit autem: non separatus ab eo quod trahitur, ad differentiam pulsionis. Nam in pulsione pellens quandoque separatur ab eo quod pellit, quandoque vero non; sed trahens nunquam separatur ab eo quod trahitur; quinimmo simul movetur trahens cum eo quod trahitur. Exponit autem quod dixerat, ad ipsum vel ad alterum, quia contingit esse tractionem ad ipsum trahentem et ad alterum in motibus voluntariis, ut dictum est.	904. This, therefore, is what he says, namely, that pulling occurs “when the motion of what pulls something toward itself or toward something else is swifter but not separated from what is pulled.” And he says “toward itself or toward something else,” because a voluntary mover can use something else just as itself; hence such a mover can both push something from something else as from itself, and pull something toward something else as toward itself. However, this does not happen in natural motions, where a natural push is always away from the pusher and a natural pull is toward the puller. He said, “when the motion is swifter,” because sometimes what is pulled is being moved toward its objective by its own motion, but is compelled by the puller to move with a swifter motion. And since the puller acts by its own motion, the motion of the puller must be swifter than the natural motion of what is being pulled. The reason for saying, “not separated from what is being pulled,” is to distinguish it from a push. For in some pushes the pusher separates itself from the object pushed and in some not, whereas the puller is never separated from what is pulled; indeed, both the puller and the pulled are moved at once. Finally he said, “to itself or to something else” because a pull can be toward the puller or toward something else, as was explained for voluntary motions.
lib. 7 l. 3 n. 9 Et quia sunt quidam motus in quibus non ita manifeste salvatur ratio tractionis, consequenter ostendit eos etiam reduci ad hos modos tractionis quos posuerat, scilicet ad seipsum et ad alterum. Et hoc est quod dicit, quod omnes alii tractus, qui non nominantur tractus, reducuntur in hos duos modos tractionis; quia sunt idem specie cum eis quantum ad hoc quod motus accipiunt speciem a terminis; quia et illi tractus sunt ad seipsum vel ad alterum, sicut patet in inspiratione et expiratione. Inspiratio enim est attractio aeris, expiratio vero est aeris expulsio; et similiter spuitio est expulsio sputi. Et similiter dicendum est de omnibus aliis motibus, per quoscumque aliqua corpora extra mittuntur vel intra recipiuntur; quia emissio reducitur ad pulsionem, receptio autem ad tractionem. Et similiter spathesis est pulsio, et kerkisis est attractio. Spathe enim in Graeco dicitur ensis vel spatha: unde spathesis idem est quod spathatio, idest percussio per ensem, quae fit pellendo. Et ideo alia littera quae dicit speculatio, videtur esse vitio scriptoris corrupta; quia pro spathatione posuit speculationem. Kerkisis autem est attractio. Est autem kerkis in Graeco quoddam instrumentum quo utuntur textores, quod ad se trahunt texendo, quod Latine dicitur radius: unde alia littera habet radiatio. Horum enim duorum, et quorumcumque motuum emissivorum et receptivorum, aliud est congregatio, quod pertinet ad attractionem, quia congregans movet aliquid ad alterum: aliud est disgregatio, quae pertinet ad pulsionem, quia pulsio est motus alicuius ab alio. Sic ergo patet quod omnis motus localis est aggregatio vel disgregatio; quia omnis motus localis est ab aliquo vel ad aliquid. Et per consequens patet quod omnis motus localis est pulsio vel tractio.	905. Since there are motions in which the presence of a pull is not clearly evident, he shows that even those are reduced to the types mentioned, i.e., that they are directed toward the puller or toward something else. And this is what he says, namely, that all other types of pulling which are not called “pull” are reduced to these two types, because they are specifically the same as one or the other of these two, insofar as a motion derives its species from its terminus—for the motions he has in mind are either toward the puller or toward something else, as is evident in inhaling and exhaling. For “inhaling” is pulling air in, and “exhaling” is pushing it out; likewise, spitting is the pushing out of spittle. The same is to be said of all those other motions by which bodies are expelled or drawn inwards, because emitting is reduced to pushing out and receiving to pulling. In like manner, spathesis is a type of pushing and kerkisis is a type of pulling. The former comes from the Greek word for sword; hence spathesis is to cut with a sword, which is done by pushing. Kerkisis, however, is from the Greek word “kerkis”—which refers to a weaver’s tool which he pulls toward himself as he weaves, called in Latin “radius” (hence another text has “radiatio”). These two motions, and indeed all cases of emitting or receiving are either a gathering, which pertains to drawing toward, the gatherer being one who moves something to something else, or a scattering, a scatterer being one who pushes, for a push is a motion of one thing from another. In this way it is clear that all local motion is either a gathering or a scattering, because every local motion is either from something or toward something. Consequently, all local motion is either a pushing or a pulling.
lib. 7 l. 3 n. 10 Deinde cum dicit: vertigo autem etc., manifestat quid sit vertigo; et dicit quod vertigo est quidam motus compositus ex tractu et pulsu. Cum enim aliquid vertitur, ex una parte pellitur et ex alia trahitur.	906. Then at (689 244 a4) he explains twirling as a motion composed of a pull and a push, for when something is twirled, it is on the one hand pushed, and on the other being pulled.
lib. 7 l. 3 n. 11 Deinde cum dicit: manifestum igitur etc., ostendit quod omnes quatuor motus praedicti ad pulsum et tractum reducuntur, et quod idem est iudicium de omnibus et de istis duobus. Quia enim vectio consistit in tribus aliis, et vertigo componitur ex pulsu et tractu, relinquitur quod omnis motus localis qui est ab alio, reducitur ad pulsum et tractum. Unde manifestum est quod si in pulsu et tractu movens et motum sint simul, idest ita quod pellens sit simul cum eo quod pellitur, et trahens cum eo quod trahitur; consequens erit universaliter verum esse, quod nullum sit medium inter movens secundum locum et motum.	906 bis. Then at (690 244 a5) he shows that the four general ways are reduced to pushing or pulling, and that whatever can be said of all four is contained in these two. For, since carrying consists of the other three, and twirling is composed of a push and a pull, what remains is that every local motion caused by a mover is reduced either to a push or a pull. Hence it is evident that if the mover and moved are together in the motions of pulling and of pushing, so that the pusher is together with what is being pushed, and the puller with what is being pulled, then it is universally true that there is nothing between the mover, in respect of place, and what is moved.
lib. 7 l. 3 n. 12 Deinde cum dicit: hoc autem manifestum etc., probat propositum in his duobus motibus. Et primo ponit duas rationes ad propositum ostendendum; secundo excludit obiectionem, ibi: proiectio autem et cetera. Prima autem ratio sumitur ex definitione utriusque motus: quia pulsio est motus ab ipso movente vel ab aliquo alio in aliquid aliud; et sic oportet quod saltem in principio motus pellens sit simul cum eo quod pellitur, dum pellens id quod pellitur removet a se vel ab alio. Sed tractus est motus ad ipsum vel ad alterum, ut dictum est; et quod non separatur trahens ab eo quod trahitur. Ex quo manifestum est in his duobus motibus, quod movens et motum sint simul. Secunda ratio sumitur ex congregatione et disgregatione. Dictum est enim quod pulsio est disgregatio, et tractio est congregatio. Et hoc est quod dicit: adhuc autem synosis, idest congregatio, et diosis, idest divisio. Non autem posset aliquid congregare vel disgregare, nisi adesset his quae congregantur et disgregantur. Et sic patet quod in pulsione et tractu movens et motum sunt simul.	907. Then at (691 244 a7) he proves his proposition for these two motions; First he presents two arguments that prove the proposition; Secondly, he answers an objection, at 908. The first argument is based on the definition of the two motions: for a “push” is a motion from the mover or from something else into something else; consequently, at the beginning of the motion the pusher must be together with what is being pushed, at least when the pusher removes from himself or from something else the object that is being pushed. A “pull,” however, is a motion toward the puller or toward something else, as we have said; a motion, I say, in which the puller is not separated from what is being pulled. Hence it is clear that in these two motions the mover and the moved are together. The second argument is based on gathering and scattering. For it was said above that pushing is scattering and pulling is gathering. Now, no one gathers (synosis) or scatters (diosis) without being present to the things he is gathering or scattering. Therefore, it is clear that in pulling and in pushing the mover and the moved are together.
lib. 7 l. 3 n. 13 Deinde cum dicit: proiectio autem etc., excludit quandam obiectionem, quae accidere potest circa pulsionem. De tractione enim dictum est quod motus trahentis non separetur ab eo quod trahitur: sed in pulsione dictum est quod aliquando deficit pellens ab eo quod pellitur. Et talis pulsio vocatur expulsio, cuius species est proiectio, quae est quando aliquid pellitur cum quadam violentia in remotum; et sic in proiectione videtur quod movens et motum non sint simul. Et ideo ad hoc excludendum dicit, quod proiectio est, quando motus eius quod fertur, sit velocior quam motus naturalis, et hoc propter aliquam fortem impulsionem factam. Cum enim aliquid proiicitur ex forti impulsione, movetur aer velociori motu quam sit motus eius naturalis; et ad motum aeris defertur corpus proiectum. Et quamdiu durat aer impulsus, tamdiu proiectum movetur: et hoc est quod dicit, quod facta tali impulsione, tamdiu accidit aliquid ferri proiectum, quamdiu in aere sit fortior motus quam eius motus naturalis. Sic ergo remota hac dubitatione, concludit quod movens et motum sint simul, et quod inter ea nihil est medium.	908. Then at (692 244 a11) he answers an objection that could be lodged against the push. For it was said of pulling that the motion of the puller is not separated from what is being pulled. But in pushing it was said that the pusher is in certain cases removed from the object pushed. Such a case of pushing is called “projection,” which occurs when something is pushed with some force into the distance. Hence it seems that in this case the mover and the moved are not together. To answer this he says that projecting occurs when the motion of what is thrown becomes faster than its natural motion on account of a strong impulse. For when something is projected by a strong push, the air is moved with a motion swifter than its natural motion, and with air’s motion the projected body is carried along. And so long as the air stays pushed, so long does the projectile remain in motion. This is what Aristotle says, namely, that when such a push is made, so long as there remains in the air a motion stronger than its natural motion, so long does the projectile remain in motion. Thus, with this objection answered, he concludes that the mover and the moved are together, and that nothing intervenes between the two.