Authors/Thomas Aquinas/posteriorum/L1/Lect17

Lecture 17 Demonstration does not proceed from common principles, but from principles proper to the thing demonstrated

Latin	English
	Lecture 17 (75b37-76a25) DEMONSTRATION DOES NOT PROCEED FROM COMMON PRINCIPLES, BUT FROM PRINCIPLES PROPER TO THE THING DEMONSTRATED
lib. 1 l. 17 n. 1 Ostenderat supra philosophus quod demonstratio non procedit ex principiis extraneis; hic autem ostendit quod non procedit ex communibus. Et circa hoc duo facit: primo, ostendit propositum; secundo, inducit quandam conclusionem ex dictis; ibi: si autem hoc est et cetera.	Above the Philosopher showed that demonstration does not proceed from extraneous principles; here he shows that it does not proceed from common principles. Concerning this he does two things. First, he states his proposition. Secondly, he draws a conclusion from what he has said (76a17).
Circa primum tria facit. Primo, proponit intentum dicens quod, quia manifestum est quod non contingit unumquodque per unumquodque demonstrare, sed oportet quod demonstratio fiat ex unoquoque principiorum, hoc modo, quod id quod demonstratur sit secundum quod est illud, idest, oportet quod principia demonstrationis insint per se ei, quod demonstratur; si, inquam, ita est, non sufficit, ad hoc quod aliquid sciatur, quod demonstretur ex veris et immediatis, sed oportet ulterius quod demonstretur ex principiis propriis.	Concerning the first he does two things. First (75b37), he states his intention, saying that since it is clear that it is not just through anything at random that something is demonstrated, but it is required that demonstration be from one or another of a thing’s principles in such a way that what is demonstrated be in line with what the thing as such is, i.e., it is required that the principles of the demonstration belong per se to that which is demonstrated; if, I say, this is so, then in order that something be scientifically known, it is not enough that it be demonstrated from true and immediate principles, but it is further required that it be demonstrated from proper principles.
lib. 1 l. 17 n. 2 Secundo; ibi: est enim sic demonstrare etc., probat propositum, scilicet quod non sufficiat ex veris et immediatis aliquid demonstrare, quia sic contingeret aliquid demonstrare, sicut Bryso demonstravit tetragonismum, idest quadraturam circuli, ostendens aliquod quadratum esse circulo aequale per aliqua principia communia, hoc modo: in quocunque genere est invenire aliquid maius et minus alicui, in eodem est invenire et illi aequale; in genere autem quadratorum est invenire aliquod quadratum minus circulo, quod scilicet scribitur intra circulum, et aliquod maius circulo, intra quod circulus describitur; ergo est invenire aliquod quadratum circulo aequale.	Secondly (75b40), he proves his proposition, namely, that it is not enough to demonstrate something from true and immediate principles, because then something could be demonstrated in the way that Bryson proved squaring, i.e., the squaring of a circle. For he showed that some square is equal to a circle, using common principles in the following way: In any matter in which it is possible to have something greater and something less than something else, one can find something equal to it. But in the genus of squares it is possible to find one which is less than a given circle, namely, one inscribed in the circle, and another which is greater, namely, one circumscribed about the circle. Therefore, one can be found which is equal to the circle.
Haec quidem probatio est secundum commune: aequale enim, et maius, et minus, excedunt genus quadranguli et circuli. Unde patet quod huiusmodi rationes demonstrant secundum aliquod commune, quia medium alteri inest, quam ei de quo fit demonstratio; et ideo huiusmodi rationes conveniunt aliis, et non conveniunt istis, de quibus dantur, tanquam proximis. Unde patet quod qui scit per huiusmodi rationes, non scit secundum quod illud est, idest per se, sed per accidens tantum. Si enim esset secundum se, non conveniret demonstratio in aliud genus. Unumquodque enim scimus secundum accidens, cum non cognoscimus illud secundum quod est ex principiis illius, idest secundum quod est ex principiis per se. Sicut habere tres angulos aequales duobus rectis inest per se triangulo, idest secundum quod est ex principiis illius. Quare si per se inesset medium acceptum conclusioni, necesse esset in eadem proximitate esse, idest proximum esse secundum genus conclusioni.	But this proof is according to something common: for equal and greater and less transcend the genus of square and circle. Hence such characteristics demonstrate according to something common, because the middle is present in other things besides the one with which the demonstration is concerned. Therefore, such characteristics, since they belong to other things as well, do not belong to the things of which they are said as to proximate subjects. Consequently, one who knows through such characteristics does not know according to what the thing is as such, i.e., per se, but only per accidens. For if it were based on what the thing is according to itself, the demonstration would not apply to something of another genus. For we know a thing according to what it accidentally is, when we do not know it according to what it is in virtue of its own principles, i.e., according to what comes per se from its principles, as “having three angles equal to two right angles” belongs per se to triangle, i.e., according to what it is in virtue of its principles. Consequently, if the middle which one used belonged per se to the conclusion, it would necessarily have to be in the same proximity, i.e., proximate according to genus, to the conclusion.
lib. 1 l. 17 n. 3 Tertio; ibi: si vero non etc., excludit quandam dubitationem. Contingit enim aliquando medium demonstrationis non esse in eodem genere cum conclusione. Quod qualiter contingat ostendit dicens: si vero non sit medium in eadem proximitate conclusioni, sed hoc modo sicut demonstratur aliquid in harmonica, idest in musica, per arithmeticam; verum quidem est quod huiusmodi etiam similiter demonstratur. Fit enim demonstratio in inferiori scientia per principia superioris scientiae, ut ostensum est; sicut et in scientia superiori per principia superioris.	Thirdly (76a), he excludes a doubt. For it sometimes happens that the middle of a demonstration is not in the same genus as the conclusion. How this can happen he shows when he suggests that if the middle is not in the same proximate genus as the conclusion, but is present in the way that theorems in harmonics, (i.e., in music), are demonstrable by arithmetic, it is nevertheless true that such things are also demonstrated. For in a lower science there is demonstration through the principles of a higher science, as we have established, just as in the higher science there is demonstration through the principles of that higher science.
Sed in hoc differt, quod alterius scientiae, scilicet inferioris, est scire ipsum quia tantum: genus enim subiectum inferioris scientiae est alterum a genere subiecto superioris scientiae, ex qua sumuntur principia. Sed scire propter quid est superioris scientiae, cuius sunt per se illae passiones. Cum enim passio insit subiecto propter medium, illa scientia considerabit propter quid, ad quam pertinet medium, cuius per se est passio, quae demonstratur. Si vero subiectum sit ad aliam scientiam pertinens, illius scientiae non erit propter quid, sed quia tantum; nec tali subiecto per se conveniet passio demonstrata de ipso, sed per medium extraneum. Si vero medium et subiectum pertineant ad eamdem scientiam, tunc illius scientiae erit scire quia et propter quid.	But there is this difference: on the part of the other science, namely, the lower one, there is only knowledge quia [i.e., knowledge of the fact], for the generic subject of the lower science is different from the generic subject of the higher science, from which the principles are borrowed. But knowledge propter quid [i.e., of the cause why] is proper to the higher science to which those proper attributes belong per se. For since it is in virtue of the middle that a proper attribute is in a subject, that science will consider the propter quid to which pertains the middle in which the proper attribute being demonstrated inheres per se. But if the subject belongs to another science, it will not pertain to that science to know propter quid but only quia. Nor will the proper attribute demonstrated of such a subject belong per se to it, but it will be through an alien middle. However, if the middle and the subject pertain to the same science, then it will be characteristic of that science to know quia and propter quid.
Remota autem dubitatione, ulterius conclusionem intentam principaliter inducit, dicens quod ex praedictis patet quod non est demonstrare unumquodque simpliciter, idest quocunque modo, sed secundum hoc quod demonstratur ex propriis principiis uniuscuiusque. Sed et principia propria singularum scientiarum habent aliquod commune prius eis.	Having settled this doubt, he draws the conclusion chiefly intended, saying that in the light of the foregoing it is clear that one should not demonstrate haphazardly, i.e., in any random way, but in such a way that a demonstration is made from the principles proper to each thing. But even the principles proper to the particular sciences have something common prior to them.
lib. 1 l. 17 n. 4 Deinde cum dicit: si autem hoc etc., inducit quandam conclusionem sequentem ex dictis. Et circa hoc tria facit. Primo, inducit conclusionem dicens quod, si hoc verum est, scilicet quod demonstrationes in singulis scientiis non fiunt ex communibus principiis, et iterum quod principia scientiarum habent aliquid prius se, quod est commune; manifestum est quod non est uniuscuiusque scientiae demonstrare principia sua propria. Illa enim priora principia, per quae possent probari singularum scientiarum propria principia, sunt communia principia omnium, et illa scientia, quae considerat huiusmodi principia communia, est propria omnibus, idest ita se habet ad ea, quae sunt communia omnibus, sicut se habent aliae scientiae particulares ad ea, quae sunt propria. Sicut cum subiectum arithmeticae sit numerus, ideo arithmetica considerat ea, quae sunt propria numeri: similiter prima philosophia, quae considerat omnia principia, habet pro subiecto ens, quod est commune ad omnia; et ideo considerat ea, quae sunt propria entis, quae sunt omnibus communia, tanquam propria sibi.	Then (76a17) he draws a conclusion that follows from the aforesaid. And in regard to this he does three things. First, he draws the conclusion that if demonstrations in the particular sciences do not proceed from common principles, and if the principles of those sciences have something prior to them which is common, then it is clear that it is not the business of each science to prove its proper principles. For those prior principles through which the proper principles of the particular sciences can be proved are principles common to all; and the science which considers such common principles is proper to all, i.e., is related to things which are common to all, as those other particular sciences are related to things respectively proper to each. For example, since the subject of arithmetic is number, arithmetic considers things proper to number. In like manner, first philosophy, which considers all principles, has for its subject “being,” which is common to all. Therefore, it considers the things proper to being (which are common to all) as proper to itself.
lib. 1 l. 17 n. 5 Secundo, cum dicit: et namque scivit etc., ostendit praeeminentiam huiusmodi scientiae, quae considerat principia communia, scilicet primae philosophiae, ad alias. Semper enim oportet illud, per quod aliquid probatur, esse magis scitum vel notum. Qui enim scit aliquid ex superioribus causis, oportet quod sit magis intelligens illas causas, quia scivit ex prioribus simpliciter, cum non sciat ex causatis causas: quando enim aliquis scit ex causatis causas, tunc non intelligit ex prioribus et ex magis notis simpliciter, sed ex magis notis et prioribus quoad nos. Cum autem principia inferioris scientiae probantur ex principiis superioris, non proceditur ex causatis in causas, sed e converso. Unde oportet quod talis processus sit ex prioribus et ex magis notis simpliciter. Oportet ergo magis esse scitum quod est superioris scientiae, ex quo probatur id quod est inferioris, et maxime esse scitum id, quo omnia alia probantur, et ipsum non probatur ex alio priori. Et per consequens scientia superior erit magis scientia, quam inferior; et scientia suprema, scilicet philosophia prima, erit maxime scientia.	Secondly (76a19), he shows the pre-eminence of this science which considers common principles, namely, first philosophy, over the others. For that through which something is proved must always be scientifically more known or at least more known. For one whose science of something proceeds from higher causes must understand those causes even better, because his science proceeded from the absolutely prior, since it is not through something caused that he knows these causes. For when one’s knowledge of causes proceeds from caused things, he does not derive his knowledge from the absolutely prior and better known, but from what is prior and better known in reference to us. But when the principles of a lower science are proved by the principles of a higher science, the process is not from caused things to causes, but conversely. Therefore, such a process must go from the absolutely prior and from the absolutely more known. Thus, those items of a higher science that are used in proving matters of a lower science must be more known. Furthermore, that by which all other things are proved and which is itself not proved by anything prior must be the most known. Consequently, a higher science will be science in a fuller sense than a lower; and the highest science, namely, first philosophy, will be science in the fullest sense.
lib. 1 l. 17 n. 6 Tertio, ibi: sed demonstratio etc., redit ad principalem conclusionem: et dicit quod demonstratio non procedit in aliud genus, nisi sicut dictum est quod demonstratio geometriae procedit ad scientias inferiores; sicut sunt artes mechanicae, quae utuntur mensuris; aut speculativae, sicut scientiae quae sunt de visu, ut perspectivae, quae sunt de visuali; et similiter est de arithmetica in comparatione ad harmonicam, idest musicam.	Thirdly (7643), he returns to the principal conclusion and says that demonstration does not cross over into another genus except, as already mentioned, when a demonstration from geometry is applied to certain subordinate sciences, as the mechanical arts, which employ measurements, or the perspective arts, such as the sciences which deal with vision, as optics which deals with the visual. The same applies to arithmetic in relation to harmonics, i.e., music.