Authors/Thomas Aquinas/metaphysics/liber12/lect12

Lecture 12

Latin	English
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 1 Postquam philosophus ostendit qualiter primum movens est intelligens et intelligibile, hic intendit inquirere qualiter primum movens sit bonum et appetibile. Et circa hoc duo facit. Primo ostendit qualiter se habeat bonum in universo secundum opinionem propriam. Secundo secundum opinionem aliorum, ibi, quaecumque vero impossibilia. Circa primum duo facit. Primo movet quaestionem. Secundo solvit eam, ibi, aut utroque modo et cetera. Oritur autem ista quaestio ex hoc, quod supra dictum est, quod primum movens movet sicut bonum et appetibile. Bonum enim, secundum quod est finis alicuius, est duplex. Est enim finis extrinsecus ab eo quod est ad finem, sicut si dicimus locum esse finem eius quod movetur ad locum. Est etiam finis intra, sicut forma finis generationis et alterationis, et forma iam adepta, est quoddam bonum intrinsecum eius, cuius est forma. Forma autem alicuius totius, quod est unum per ordinationem quamdam partium, est ordo ipsius: unde relinquitur quod sit bonum eius.	2627. Having shown how the first mover is both an intelligence and an intelligible object, here the Philosopher aims to investigate how the first mover is a good and an object of desire; and in regard to this he does two things. First (1102)C 2628), he shows how the good is present in the universe, according to his opinion; and second (1105:C 2638), according to the opinions of other philosophers (“And we must not fail”). In regard to the first he does two things. First, he raises a question. Second (1103:C 2629), he answers it (“Or is it”). Now this question arises because of a statement which was made above to the effect that the first mover causes motion as something good and desirable; for good, inasmuch as it is the end or goal of a thing, is twofold. For an end is extrinsic to the thing ordained to it, as when we say that a place is the end of something that is moved locally. Or it is intrinsic, as a form is the end of the process of generation or alteration; and a form already acquired is a kind of intrinsic good of the thing whose form it is. Now the form of any whole which is one through the arrangement of its parts is the order of that whole. Hence it follows that it is a good of that whole.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 2 Quaerit ergo philosophus utrum natura totius universi habeat bonum et optimum, idest finem proprium, quasi aliquid separatum a se, vel habeat bonum et optimum in ordine suarum partium, per modum, quo bonum alicuius rei naturalis est sua forma.	2628. Therefore the Philosopher asks whether the nature of the whole universe has its good and highest good, i.e., its proper end, as something separate from itself, or whether this consists in the ordering of its parts in the way in which the good of any natural being in its own form.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 3 Deinde cum dicit aut utroque solvit propositam quaestionem. Et circa hoc duo facit. Primo enim ostendit, quod universum habet bonum separatum, et bonum ordinis. Secundo ostendit qualiter partes universi se habent ad ordinem, ibi, omnia vero coordinata. Dicit ergo primo, quod universum habet utroque modo bonum et finem. Est enim aliquod bonum separatum, quod est primum movens, ex quo dependet caelum et tota natura, sicut ex fine et bono appetibili, ut ostensum est. Et, quia omnia, quorum unum est finis, oportet quod in ordine ad finem conveniant, necesse est, quod in partibus universi ordo aliquis inveniatur; et sic universum habet et bonum separatum, et bonum ordinis.	2629. Or is it (1103). Then he answers the question raised; and in regard to this he does two things. First, he shows that the universe has both a separate good and a good of order. Second (1104:C 2632), he shows the ways in which the parts of the universe contribute to its order (“And all things”). He accordingly says, first (1103), that the universe has its good and end in both ways. For there is a separate good, which is the first mover, on which the heavens and the whole of nature depend as their end or desirable good, as has been shown (1067:C 2520). And since all things having one end must agree in their ordination to that end, some order must be found in the parts of the universe; and so the universe has both a separate good and a good of order.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 4 Sicut videmus in exercitu: nam bonum exercitus est et in ipso ordine exercitus, et in duce, qui exercitui praesidet: sed magis est bonum exercitus in duce, quam in ordine: quia finis potior est in bonitate his quae sunt ad finem: ordo autem exercitus est propter bonum ducis adimplendum, scilicet ducis voluntatem in victoriae consecutionem; non autem e converso, bonum ducis est propter bonum ordinis.	2630. We see this, for example, in the case of an army; for the good of the army is found both in the order itself of the army and in the commander who has charge of the army. But the good of the army is found in a higher degree in its commander than in its order, because the goodness of an end takes precedence over that of the things which exist for the sake of the end. Now the order of an army exists for the purpose of achieving the good of its commander, namely, his will to attain victory. But the opposite of this is not true, i.e., that the good of the commander exists for the sake of the good of order.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 5 Et, quia ratio eorum quae sunt ad finem, sumitur ex fine, ideo necesse est quod non solum ordo exercitus sit propter ducem, sed etiam quod a duce sit ordo exercitus, cum ordo exercitus sit propter ducem. Ita etiam bonum separatum, quod est primum movens, est melius bonum bono ordinis, quod est in universo. Totus enim ordo universi est propter primum moventem, ut scilicet explicatur in universo ordinato id quod est in intellectu et voluntate primi moventis. Et sic oportet, quod a primo movente sit tota ordinatio universi.	2631. And since the formal character of things Which exist for the sake of an end is derived from the end, it is therefore necessary not only that the good of the army exist for the sake of the commander, but also that the order of the army depend on the commander, since its order exists for the sake of the commander. In this way too the separate good of the universe, which is the first mover, is a greater good than the good of order which is found in the universe. For the whole order of the universe exists for the sake of the first mover inasmuch as the things contained in the mind and will of the first mover are realized in the ordered universe. Hence the whole order of the ~niverse must depend on the first mover.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 6 Deinde cum dicit omnia vero ostendit qualiter partes universi se habent ad ordinem; dicens, quod omnia quae sunt in universo, sunt aliquo modo ordinata, sed non similiter omnia habent ordinem, scilicet animalia marina, et volatilia, et plantae. Et tamen licet non sint eodem modo ordinata, non ita se habent, quod unum eorum non pertineat ad alterum; sed est aliqua affinitas et ordo unius ad alterum. Plantae enim sunt propter animalia, et animalia sunt propter homines. Et quod omnia sint ordinata adinvicem, patet ex hoc, quod omnia simul ordinantur ad unum finem.	2632. And all things (1104). Here he shows the ways in which the parts of the universe contribute to its order. He says that all things in the universe are ordered together in some way, but not all are ordered alike, for example, sea animals, birds, and plants. Yet even though they are not ordered in the same way, they are still not disposed in such a way that one of them has no connection with another; but there is some affinity and relationship of one with another. For plants exist for the sake of animals, and animals for the sake of men. That all things are related. to each other is evident from the fact that all are connected together to one end.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 7 Sed quod omnia non sic sint similiter ordinata, manifestatur per quoddam exemplum. In aliqua enim domo vel familia ordinata inveniuntur diversi gradus, sicut sub patrefamilias est primus gradus filiorum, alius autem gradus est servorum, tertius vero gradus est bestiarum, quae serviunt in domo, ut canes, et huiusmodi animalia. Huiusmodi enim gradus diversimode se habent ad ordinem domus, qui imponitur a patrefamilias gubernatore domus. Filiis enim non competit ut faciant aliquid casualiter et sine ordine; sed omnia, aut plura eorum quae faciunt, ordinata sunt. Non autem ita est de servis aut bestiis, quia parum participant de ordine, qui est ad commune. Sed multum invenitur in eis de eo quod contingit, et casualiter accidit. Et hoc ideo quia parvam affinitatem habent cum rectore domus, qui intendit bonum domus commune.	2633. That all are not ordered in the same way is made clear by an example; for in an ordered household or family different ranks of members are found. For example, under the head of the family there is a first rank, namely, that of the sons, and a second rank, which is that of the slaves, and a third rank, which is that of the domestic animals, as dogs and the like. For ranks of this kind have a different relation to the order of the household, which is imposed by the head of the family, who governs the household. For it is not proper for the sons to act in a haphazard and disorderly way, but all or most of the things that they do are ordered. This is not the case with the slaves or domestic animals, however, because they share to a very small degree in the order which exists for the common good. But in their case we find many things which are contingent and haphazard; and this is because they have little connection with the ruler of the household, who aims at the common good of the household.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 8 Sicut autem imponitur in familia ordo per legem et praeceptum patrisfamilias, qui est principium unicuique ordinatorum in domo, exequendi ea quae pertinent ad ordinem domus, ita natura in rebus naturalibus est principium exequendi unicuique id quod competit sibi de ordine universi. Sicuti enim qui est in domo per praeceptum patrisfamilias ad aliquid inclinatur, ita aliqua res naturalis per naturam propriam. Et ipsa natura uniuscuiusque est quaedam inclinatio indita ei a primo movente, ordinans ipsam in debitum finem. Et ex hoc patet, quod res naturales agunt propter finem, licet finem non cognoscant, quia a primo intelligente assequuntur inclinationem in finem.	2634. And just as the order of the family is imposed by the law and precept of the head of the family, who is the principle of each of the things which are ordered in the household, with a view to carrying out the activities which pertain to the order of the household, in a similar fashion the nature of physical things is the principle by which each of them carries out the activity proper to it in the order of the universe. For just as any member of the household is disposed to act through the precept of the head of the family, in a similar fashion any natural being is disposed by its own nature. Now the nature of each thing is a kind of inclination implanted in it by the first mover, who directs it to its proper end; and from this it is clear that natural beings act for the sake of an end even though they do not know that end, because they acquire their inclination to their end from the first intelligence.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 9 Sed tamen non similiter omnia ista se habent ad istum finem. Est enim aliquid commune omnibus; quia necesse est quod omnia ad hoc perveniant quod discernantur, idest quod habeant discretas et proprias operationes, et quod etiam secundum substantiam adinvicem discernantur; et quantum ad hoc in nullo deficit ordo. Sed quaedam sunt quae non solum hoc habent, sed ulterius talia sunt, quod omnia, quae sunt in eis communicant ad totum, idest sunt ordinata ad bonum commune totius. Hoc autem invenitur in illis, in quibus nihil est praeter naturam neque casualiter, sed omnia secundum debitum ordinem praecedunt.	2635. However, not all things are disposed to this end in the same way. For there is something common to all things, since all things must succeed in being distinguished; that is, they must have discrete and proper operations, and must also be differentiated essentially from each other; and in this respect order is lacking in none of them. But there are some things which not only have this but are also such that all their activities “participate in the whole,” i.e., are directed to the common good of the whole. This is found to be true of those things which contain nothing contrary to their nature, nor any element of chance, but everything proceeds according to the right order.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 10 Manifestum est enim, quod unaquaeque res naturalis, ut dictum est, ordinatur ad bonum commune, secundum suam actionem debitam naturalem. Unde illa quae nunquam deficiunt a sua actione debita et naturali habent omnia sua communicantia ad totum. Illa vero quae aliquando deficiunt ab actione debita et naturali, non habent omnia sua communicantia ad totum, sicut huiusmodi corpora inferiora.	2636. For it is evident, as has been pointed out (1104:C 2632-34), that each natural being is directed to the common good by reason of its proper natural activity. Hence those things which never fail in their proper natural activity have all their activities contributing to the whole. But those which sometimes fail in their proper natural activity do not have all their activities contributing to the whole; and lower bodies are of this kind.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 11 Est ergo summa solutionis, quod ordo duo requirit, scilicet ordinatorum distinctionem et communicantiam distinctorum ad totum. Quantum autem ad primum indeficienter est ordo in omnibus; quantum autem ad secundum est quidam ordo indeficienter in aliquibus, quae sunt suprema et proxima primo principio, sicut substantiae separatae et corpora caelestia, in quibus nihil casualiter accidit et praeter naturam: in aliquibus autem deficit, scilicet corporibus, in quibus interdum aliquid accidit casualiter praeter naturam. Et hoc propter remotionem a primo principio semper eodem modo se habente.	2637. The answer briefly stated, then, is that order requires two things: a distinction between the things ordered, and the contribution of the distinct things to the whole. As regard the first of these, order is found in all things without fail; but as regards the second, order is found in some things, and these are the things which are highest and closest to the first principle, as the separate substances and the heavenly bodies, in which there is no element of chance or anything contrary to their nature. But order is lacking in some things, namely, in [lower] bodies, which are sometimes subject to chance and to things which are contrary to their nature. This is so because of their distance from the first principle, which is always the same.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 12 Deinde cum dicit quaecumque vero determinat de bono et ordine universi secundum opinionem aliorum; et circa hoc duo facit. Primo manifestat de quo est intentio; dicens, quod oportet dicere quaecumque impossibilia aut absurda accidunt illis qui aliter dicunt de bono et ordine universi, scilicet quam nos. Et oportet dicere etiam qualia dicunt illi qui melius loquuntur, et in quorum dictis pauciores dubitationes apparent.	2638. And we must not (1105). Then he deals with the end and order of the universe according to the opinion of other philosophers. In regard to this he does two things. First, he explains what he aims to do. He says that we must state all the impossible or incongruous conclusions facing those who express views different from our own about the good and order of the universe; and we must also state the kind of views held by those men who give a better explanation of things and in whose statements fewer difficulties appear.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 13 Deinde cum dicit omnes enim prosequitur suam intentionem; et circa hoc duo facit. Primo ponit opinionem illorum, qui posuerunt principia esse contraria. Secundo eorum qui posuerunt principia esse naturas quasdam separatas, ibi. Amplius si non erunt et cetera. Circa primum duo facit. Primo proponit in quo deficiant illi, qui dicunt principia esse contraria; dicens quod omnes antiqui philosophi posuerunt omnia esse ex principiis contrariis. Et quantum ad tria non recte dixerunt. Neque enim recte dixerunt in hoc, quod posuerunt res esse ex contrariis; neque etiam in hoc quod dixerunt omnia ex contrariis; et tertio defecerunt in hoc quod non dixerunt quomodo ex contrariis res producantur.	2639. For all these (1106). He then carries out his plan. In regard to this he does two things. First (1106:C 2639), he gives the opinion of those who held that the principles of things are contraries; and second (1117:C 2656), the opinion of those who held that the principles of things are separate natures (“Further, if nothing”). In treating the first point he does two things. First (1106), he explains in what way those men are wrong who say that the principles of things are contraries. He says that all the ancient philosophers held that all things come from contraries as their principles; and they were wrong on three counts. First, they were wrong in holding that things come from contraries; and second, in saying that all things come from contraries; and third, in failing to explain how things are produced from contraries.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 14 Secundo ibi, impassibilia namque manifestat quomodo in praedictis tribus defecerunt. Et primo quomodo defecerunt in hoc, quod posuerunt esse res ex contrariis. Secundo in hoc quod posuerunt omnia esse ex contrariis, ibi, amplius autem omnia pravi participatione. Tertio quomodo defecerunt in hoc quod non dixerunt quomodo ex contrariis res sint, ibi, omnes autem contraria dicentes et cetera. Dicit ergo primo, quod non recte dicunt res esse ex contrariis, quia contraria secundum se accepta sunt impassibilia adinvicem: non enim albedo patitur a nigredine, neque e converso. Non autem ex eis posset aliquid unum constitui, nisi adinvicem paterentur, ut sic reducantur ad aliquod medium.	2640. For contraries (1107). Second, he indicates how they were wrong in the three ways mentioned above. He explains how they erred, first, in holding that things come from contraries; and second (1108:C 2643), in claiming that all things come from contraries (“Further, [according to them]”); and third (1113:C 2650), in failing to show how things come from contraries (“But all who speak”). He accordingly says, first (1107), that they were wrong in saying that things comes from contraries, because contraries taken in themselves cannot be acted upon by one another; for whiteness is not acted upon by blackness or vice versa, and one thing could come from them only if they were influenced by one another and so were reduced to an intermediate state.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 15 Sed haec dubitatio secundum sententiam Aristotelis de facili solvitur. Quia Aristoteles posuit, praeter duo contraria esse tertium principium, quod est materia. Sic ergo unum contrariorum potest pati a reliquo, inquantum materia subiecta uni contrario, ab alio patitur.	2641. But in Aristotle’s opinion this difficulty is easily solved, because besides the two contraries he also posited a third principle, matter. Hence one of the two contraries can be acted upon by the other in the sense that matter, which is the subject of one contrary, can be acted upon by the other contrary.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 16 Sed alii posuerunt materiam esse alterum contrariorum, et non aliquid praeter contraria. Sicut patet de illis, qui posuerunt ista contraria esse principia, inaequale et aequale, unum et multa. Attribuebant enim inaequalitatem et multitudinem materiae, aequalitatem et unitatem formae, sicut patet de opinione Platonis, licet philosophi naturales posuerint contrarium. Sed hoc eorum dictum solvitur eodem modo; quia materia, quae una est, quasi commune subiectum contrariorum, nulli est contraria.	2642. But others claimed that matter is one of the two contraries and not something distinct from them, as is evident in the case of those who held that the contraries, the unequal and the equal, and the one and the many, are principles. For they attribute inequality and plurality to matter, and equality and unity to form, as is found in Plato’s opinion, although the natural philosophers held the opposite. But this statement of theirs is met in the same way, because matter, which is one thing as the common subject of contraries, is contrary to nothing.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 17 Deinde cum dicit amplius autem manifestat philosophus, quomodo defecerunt dicendo omnia esse ex contrariis; et circa hoc duo facit. Primo ostendit inconveniens, quod ex hac positione sequitur. Manifestum est enim quod prima contrariorum genera sunt bonum et malum, quia semper alterum contrariorum est ut privatio, et ita habet rationem mali. Si ergo omnia sunt ex contrariis, sequitur quod omnia participent malo praeter unum, scilicet bonum, quod est principium: nam alterum elementorum ponitur esse bonum, omnia vero alia ponuntur esse ex his duobus principiis. Hoc autem non est verum; quia in corporibus caelestibus et natura substantiarum separatarum non inveniuntur corruptio et malum.	2643. Further, [according to them] (1108). Then the Philosopher explains how these thinkers were wrong in saying that all things come from contraries; and in regard to this he does two things. First, he shows the unreasonable conclusion which follows from this view. For it is evident that the primary contraries are good and evil, because one of two contraries is always the privation of the other and so has the character of evil. Therefore, if all things come from contraries, it follows that all things participate in evil as well as in unity, i.e., good, which is a principle; for good is posited as one of the two elements, and everything else is supposed to come from these two principles. But this is not true, because destruction and evil are not found in the heavenly bodies or in the nature of the separate substances.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 18 Secundo ibi, alii autem ostendit quod positio ponentium omnia ex contrariis, non convenit positioni quorumdam philosophorum. Si enim omnia sunt ex contrariis, sequitur, ut dictum est, quod prima principia sint bonum et malum. Sed quidam non posuerunt bonum et malum esse principia; sed id quod est bonum, esse principium omnibus.	2644. For other thinkers (1109). Second, he shows that the position of all those who held that all things come from contraries is not in agreement with the position of certain of the philosophers. For if all things come from contraries, it follows, as has been pointed out, that good and evil are the first principles of things. But some did not claim that good and evil are principles but said that the good is the principle of all things.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 19 Tertio ibi, alii vero ostendit quomodo in ponendo bonum esse principium, defecerunt etiam illi. Et hoc ostendit primo in communi; dicens, quod quidam, licet recte dicerent ponentes bonum esse principium omnium, tamen in hoc defecerunt, quia non determinaverunt quomodo bonum esset principium, utrum scilicet ut finis, aut ut forma, aut ut movens. Haec enim tria habent rationem perfecti et boni; non autem materia, quae non perficitur nisi per formam, unde de ea mentionem non facit.	2645. The former (1110). Third he indicates the error made even by those who claimed that the good is a principle of things. He makes this clear, first, in a general way. He says that, even though some philosophers are right in holding that the good is a principle of all things, they are still wrong in failing to show how it is a principle, i.e., whether as an end or as a form or as a mover. For these things are characterized by perfection and goodness, whereas matter which is perfected only by form, does not have the character of something good and perfect; and therefore he makes no mention of it.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 20 Secundo ibi, inconvenienter autem descendit ad speciales opiniones; et primo ad opinionem Empedoclis; dicens, quod inconvenienter Empedocles ponit bonum esse principium. Ponit enim amorem principium, quasi bonum. Sed amorem dicit esse principium dupliciter. Dicit enim quod est ut movens, inquantum habet unire et congregare: et iterum ponit, quod est principium sicut materia. Probat enim amorem esse partem mixtorum. Corpora enim ponebat esse mixta ex quatuor elementis et amicitia et lite. Licet autem contingat esse principium idem sicut materia et sicut movens, non tamen secundum eamdem rationem. Potest enim ignis esse movens secundum formam et materiale principium secundum materiam: non autem secundum idem: quia movens, inquantum huiusmodi, est in actu, materia autem, inquantum huiusmodi, est in potentia. Restat igitur assignandum secundum quid amor sit materia, et secundum quid est movens, quod ipse non assignat.	2646. And Empedocles’ doctrine (1111). Next, he turns to certain particular opinions. First, he considers the opinion of Empedocles. He says that Empedocles made the unreasonable assumption that the good is a principle of things; for he claimed that love is a principle, identifying it with the good. However, he said that love is a principle in two ways. For he claimed that it is a moving principle inasmuch as its function is to unite things and bring them together; and he also claimed that it is a material principle inasmuch as he asserts that love is a part of compounds, since he assumed that bodies are compounds of the four elements and of friendship and strife. And even though the same principle can be both matter and a mover, it is not such under the same formal aspect. For fire can be a mover according to its form, and a material principle according to its matter; but it cannot be both in the same respect, because a mover as such is actual, whereas matter as such is potenial. Hence it must still be explained in what respect love has the character of a material principle, and in what respect it has the character of a moverand this he fails to do.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 21 Aliud autem inconveniens, quod sequitur opinionem Empedoclis, est quod posuit litem esse primum principium incorruptibile. Quae quidem secundum ipsum videtur esse ipsa natura mali: malum autem secundum recte opinantes non ponitur principium esse, sed solum bonum, ut dictum est.	2647. Another incongruity which follows from Empedocles’ opinion is his positing strife as a first indestructible principle; for strife in itself seems to be essentially evil, and evil, in the opinions of those who are right, is not set down as a principle, but only the good, as has been stated (1109)C 2644).
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 22 Tertio ibi, Anaxagoras autem descendit ad opinionem Anaxagorae; dicens, quod Anaxagoras posuit bonum esse principium primum quasi movens. Dixit enim quod intellectus movet omnia. Sed manifestum est quod semper intellectus movet gratia alicuius, idest propter finem. Quare oportet quod ponat alterum aliquod principium, propter quod intellectus moveat. Nisi forte dicat sicut nos diximus, scilicet quod idem potest esse intellectus et intellectum, et quod intellectus moveat propter seipsum, quod aliquo modo invenitur in his quae agunt per intellectum secundum nos. Ars enim medicinae agit propter sanitatem, et sanitas est quodam modo ipsa ars medicinae, ut supra dictum est.	2648. Again, Anaxagoras (1112). Third, he turns to the opinion of Anaxagoras. He says that Anaxagoras makes the good to be a first principle of things as a mover; for he said that an intellect moves all things. But it is evident that “an intellect always causes motion for the sake of some goal,” i.e., an end. Hence Anaxagoras must posit some other principle by reason of which this intellect causes motion, unless perhaps he should say, as we have, that an intellect and its intelligible object can be the same; and that an intellect moves for its own sake; which is true in a sense of those things which act by intellect, according to our view. For the art of medicine acts for the sake of health, and health is in a sense the art of medicine itself, as has been pointed out above (C 2619; 606:C 1407).
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 23 Aliud autem inconveniens sequi videtur contra opinionem Anaxagorae, si sustineatur communis opinio, scilicet quod contraria sunt principia omnium. Secundum hoc enim videbitur inconveniens, quod non facit aliquod principium contrarium bono et intellectui.	2649. Another unreasonable consequence which is contrary to the opinion of Anaxagoras also seems to follow if the common view is maintained, namely, that contraries are the principles of all things. For according to this view it would be absurd for him not to make some principle contrary to the good and to intellect.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 24 Deinde cum dicit omnes autem ostendit tertium quod supra posuit, scilicet quod ponentes principia contraria esse, non dicunt quomodo principiata sunt ex contrariis. Et hoc est quod dicit, quod omnes dicentes principia esse contraria non utuntur ad causandum ea quae sunt apparentia in entibus. Nisi aliquis figuret, idest nisi aliquis velit fingere vel figurabiliter dicere.	2650. But all who speak (1113). He explains the third error which he noted above (1106-07:C 2639-40), namely, that those who held the principles to be contraries did not explain how things come from contraries as their principles. He says that all those who speak of contraries as principles fail to make use of them in accounting for what appears in the world, unless “some make use of imagery,” i.e., unless someone wishes to indulge his fancy or to speak figuratively.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 25 Et primo cum dicit, et quare haec quidem et cetera. Ostendit quod non possunt causare differentiam corruptibilium vel incorruptibilium. Dicit ergo, quod nullus antiquorum philosophorum assignat causam, quare entia quaedam sunt corruptibilia, et quaedam incorruptibilia. Ponunt enim quidam eorum entia omnia esse ex eisdem principiis, scilicet contrariis. Et haec est opinio antiquorum naturalium. Alii vero, scilicet poetae theologi, posuerunt omnia ex non ente. Unde supra dixit, quod generat mundum ex non ente. Et sic, cum eamdem originem utrique assignent omnibus entibus, non possunt causare distinctionem rerum secundum corruptibile et incorruptibile. Et ideo alii, ut ad hoc non cogantur, quod scilicet ponant omnia esse ex non ente, vel quod assignent causam distinctionis rerum, posuerunt omnia esse unum, totaliter a rebus distinctionem tollentes: et haec est opinio Parmenidis et Melissi.	2651. And none of them (ibid.). First, he shows that they cannot account for the differences between destructible and indestructible things. He accordingly says that none of the ancient philosophers give any reason why some beings are destructible and some are not. Some of them claimed that all things are derived from the same principles, namely, contraries; and this is the opinion of the ancient natural philosophers. Others, the theological poets, held that all things come from non-being. Hence he said above (1065: C 2515) that they generate the world from non-being. And so although both groups assign the origin of all things, they cannot explain why things are distinguished into destructible and indestructible. Hence others, in order not to be driven to this, i.e., to posit that all things come from non-being or to account for the difference between things, held that all things are one, thereby entirely doing away with the distinction between things. This is the view of Parmenides and Melissus.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 26 Secundo ibi, amplius propter ostendit quod etiam in alio deficiunt, quia scilicet non possunt assignare causam, quare generatio sit sempiterna, nec possunt assignare quae sit universalis causa generationis; neutrum enim contrariorum est universalis generationis causa.	2652. Further, no one (1114). Second, he shows that they were also wrong in another respect, namely, in being unable to explain why generation is eternal or to state what the universal cause of generation is; for neither of the contraries is a universal cause of generation.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 27 Tertio ibi, et duo principia tertium ponit, in quo deficiunt ponentes principia esse contraria. Necesse est enim eis assignare quod alterum contrariorum sit principalius principium, cum semper alterum sit ut privatio. Vel intendit, quod necesse est ponere aliquod principium principalius utroque contrariorum, ex quo ratio assignari possit quare quaedam attribuuntur uni contrariorum sicut principio, et quaedam alteri, utpote quare quodam tempore moveat lis elementa ad separationem, et quodam tempore amicitia ad congregationem.	2653. And those who (1115). Third, he states how those men were wrong who claimed that the principles of things are contraries; for they must maintain that one of two contraries is a superior principle, since one contrary has the character of a privation. Or he means that it is necessary to posit some principle, which is more important than both contraries, by which it is possible to explain why certain things are attributcd to one of the contraries as their principle and why certain others are attributed to the other contrary; for example, why at one time strife will cause the elements to separate and why at another time friendship will cause them to combine.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 28 Et hoc etiam accidit ponentibus esse species. Necesse enim est eis ponere aliquod principium principalius speciebus. Manifestum est enim, quod ea quae generantur et corrumpuntur, non semper eodem modo participant speciem. Unde oportet ponere aliquod principium, ex quo assignetur ratio, quare hoc individuum prius participavit, aut modo participat speciem.	2654. This difficulty also faces those who posit separate Forms; for they must assign some principle which is superior to the Forms, since it is evident that things which are generated and destroyed do not always participate in a form in the same way. Hence it is necessary to posit some principle by which it is possible to explain why this individual formerly participated or now participates in a form.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 29 Deinde cum dicit et aliis ponit quartum inconveniens, quod eis sequitur; dicens, quod necesse est philosophis ponentibus principia esse contraria, quod sapientiae primae et honoratissimae scientiae, sit aliquid contrarium, quia sapientia est de primo principio, ut in primo ostensum est. Unde si primo principio non est aliquid contrarium, quia omnia contraria habent naturam quae est in potentia ad utrumque contrariorum, primum autem principium, secundum nos, est immateriale, ut ex dictis patet: unde relinquitur quod primo principio non sit contrarium aliquid, et quod primae scientiae non sit contraria aliqua scientia, sed solum ignorantia.	2655. And for other thinkers (1116). Here he gives a fourth incongruity which faces these thinkers. He says that the philosophers who claim that the principles of things are contraries must admit that there is something contrary to the primary kind of wisdom or noblest science, because wisdom is concerned with the first principle, as has been shown in Book I (13:C 35). Therefore, if there is nothing contrary to the first principle (for all pairs of contraries have a nature which is in potentiality to each pair), and according to us the first principle is immaterial, as is clear from what has been said (1058:C 2495), then it follows that there is nothing contrary to the first principle, and that there is no science which is contrary to the primary science, but merely ignorance.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 30 Deinde cum dicit amplius si descendit ad opinionem ponentium substantias separatas. Et primo ostendit quod inconveniens sequitur non ponentibus eas: et dicit, quod si non sint alia entia praeter sensibilia, non erit primum principium, sicut ostensum est, nec ordo rerum qualis assignatus est, nec generatio perpetua, nec principia qualia supra posuimus; sed semper erit principii principium in infinitum, utpote quod Socrates generetur a Platone et ille ab illo, et sic in infinitum, ut visum est omnibus antiquis philosophis naturalibus. Non enim ponebant aliquod principium universale primum, praeter ista principia particularia et sensibilia.	2656. Further, if nothing (1117). Next, he turns to the opinion of those who posited separate substances. First, he points out that an incongruity faces those who fail to posit such substances. He says that, if nothing exists except sensible things, there will be no first principle, as has been noted (1055:C 2489), no order of things such as has been described, no eternal generation, and no principles of the kind which we have posited above (1060:C 2503); but every principle will always have a principle, and so on to infinity. Thus Socrates will be begotten by Plato and the latter by someone else and so on to infinity, as was seen to be the view of all of the ancient philosophers of nature. For they did not posit a first universal principle over and above these particular and sensible principles.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 31 Si autem ostendit quod inconveniens sequitur ponentibus naturas quasdam separatas. Et primo quantum ad eos qui ponebant in huiusmodi naturis connexionem quamdam originis. Secundo quantum ad eos qui hoc non ponebant, ibi, dicentes autem numerum. Circa primum ducit ad quatuor inconvenientia: quorum primum est, quod species et numeri, quae ponebant quidam praeter sensibilia, nullius causae videntur esse. Sed si sint alicuius causae, non videbitur aliquid esse causa motus, quia huiusmodi non videntur habere rationem principiorum moventium.	2657. Now if there (1118). Then he shows that an unreasonable consequence faces those who posit certain separate natures. He does this, first, with regard to those who posited a certain connection in origin among natures of this kind; and second (1122:C 2661), with regard to those who did not hold this position (“And those who say”). Concerning the first he draws out four untenable consequences. The first (1118) of these is that the separate Forms and numbers, which some posited over and above sensible things, seem not to be causes of anything. But if they are causes of something, it seems that nothing will be a cause of motion, because things of this kind do not seem to have the character of a moving cause.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 32 Secundo ibi, adhuc quomodo ducit ad aliud inconveniens. Numerus enim non est magnitudo. Magnitudo autem non est nisi ex magnitudinibus, unde impossibile videtur assignare quomodo magnitudo et continuum sunt ex numeris qui non sunt continui. Non enim potest dici quod numerus causet continuum sicut principium motivum et formale.	2658. Again, how will (1119). Second, he brings forward another incongruity. For number is not continuous quantity, but continuous quantity is constituted only of continuous quantities. Hence it seems impossible to explain how continuous quantity or extension comes from numbers, which are not continuous. For it cannot be said that number is the cause of continuous quantity either as a moving cause or as a formal cause.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 33 Tertium ponit ibi, at vero. Dicens quod si species et numeri sunt prima principia, cum in speciebus et numeris non inveniatur contrarietas, sequitur quod non erunt contraria principia prima, quia non ponuntur factiva et motiva. Et sic continget non esse generationem et motum. Quia, si prima principia non sunt moventia, sed posterius causentur ex primis principiis, sequetur quod sunt in potentia priorum principiorum. Quod autem potest esse, potest et non esse. Unde sequitur quod generatio et motus non sunt sempiterna. Sed sunt sempiterna, ut supra positum est. Interimendum est igitur aliud praemissorum, scilicet quod ponebantur prima principia non esse moventia. Et hoc dictum est, scilicet in primo libro, quomodo prima principia sunt moventia.	2659. Further, no one (1120). Then he gives the third untenable consequence. He says that, if the separate Forms and numbers are first principles, it follows, since contrariety is not found in forms and numbers, that first principles will not be contraries, because they are not held to be productive principles or movers. Hence it will follow that there is no generation or motion; for if the first principles are not efficient causes of motion but are subsequently caused from first principles, it will follow that they are contained in the potency of prior principles; and what can be can also not be. The conclusion, then, is that generation and motion are not eternal. But they are eternal, as has been proved above (1055:C 2490-91). Therefore one of the premises must be rejected, namely, the one holding that first principles are not movers. The way in which the first principles are movers has been stated in Book I (25-26:C 50-51).
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 34 Quartum ponit ibi, adhuc quomodo dicens quod nullus istorum dicere potest, quid faciat unum esse numerum, aut animam et corpus, aut universaliter formam et id cuius est forma, nisi dicat, quod movens hoc facit, sicut nos supra diximus in octavo. Species autem et numeri non habent rationem causae moventis.	2660. Again, as to the way (1121). He gives the fourth incongruity. He says that none of these philosophers can state what it is that makes number, or soul and body, or in general form and the thing to which form belongs, a unity, unless he says that a mover does this, as we explained above in Book VIII (736:C 1759). Forms and numbers, however, do not have the character of a mover.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 35 Deinde cum dicit dicentes autem ostendit quod inconveniens sequatur secundum illos, qui ponunt huiusmodi naturas esse inconnexas; dicens, quod ponentes primum in rebus esse numerum mathematicum, ut Pythagorici posuerunt, et sic consequenter semper aliam naturam habitam, idest consequentem, videlicet quod post numerum, magnitudinem, et post magnitudinem, sensibilia, et dicentes cuiuslibet naturae esse alia et alia principia, sicut quod alia sunt principia numerorum, et alia magnitudinum et alia sensibilium, isti inquam sic dicentes, faciunt substantiam universi esse inconnexam, idest sine ordine, ita quod una pars nihil conferat ad aliam vel ad alteram, sive sit sive non sit. Et similiter faciunt multa principia inconnexa.	2661. And those who say (1122). Here he indicates the unreasonable consequence facing those who claim that natures of this kind are unrelated things. He says that those who claim that mathematical number is the primary reality, as the Pythagoreans did, and “that there is always one substance after another” in this way, i.e., consecutively (so that after number comes continuous quantity, and after continuous quantity come sensible things), and who say that there is a different principle for each nature, so that there are certain principles for numbers, others for continuous quantity, and others for sensible things—those who speak in this way, I say, make the substances of the universe a group of substances unrelated to each other, i.e., without order, inasmuch as one part confers nothing on any other part whether it exists or does not. And they likewise make their many principles to be unrelated.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 36 Et hoc non potest esse, quia entia non volunt male disponi. Dispositio enim entium naturalium est qualis optima potest esse. Et hoc videmus in singulis, quod unumquodque est optimae dispositionis in sua natura. Unde multo magis oportet hoc existimare in toto universo.	2662. Now this cannot be the case, because beings do not want to be badly disposed; for the disposition of natural things is the best possible. We observe this in the case of particular things, because each is best disposed in its own nature. Hence we must understand this to be the case to a much greater degree in the whole universe.
lib. 12 l. 12 n. 37 Sed pluralitas principatuum non est bonum. Sicut non esset bonum quod essent diversae familiae in una domo, quae invicem non communicarent. Unde relinquitur quod totum universum est sicut unus principatus et unum regnum. Et ita oportet quod ordinetur ab uno gubernatore. Et hoc est quod concludit, quod est unus princeps totius universi, scilicet primum movens, et primum intelligibile, et primum bonum, quod supra dixit Deum, qui est benedictus in saecula saeculorum. Amen.	2663. But many rulers are not good. For example, it would not be good for different families which shared nothing in common to live in a single home. Hence it follows that the whole universe is like one principality and one kingdom, and must therefore be governed by one ruler. Aristotle’s conclusion is that there is one ruler of the whole universe, the first mover, and one first intelligible object, and one first good, whom above he called God (1074:C 2544), who is blessed for ever and ever. Amen.